4. Basics of Theory of Training
The second great section of this study reviews the basics of theory of training. In the chapters the definitions of training, how to plan a workout, the components and training and performance, conditional and coordination capacities will be dealt with. Furthermore form timing, regeneration, overtraining and questions of age will be discussed.
4.1. Definition and Characteristics of Training
‘Training is a planned program for physical load that results chronic adaption. Its objective is to enhance physical capacity.’ Dubecz (2009) completed this definition with the theoretical knowledge referring to physical load and the investigation of environmental effect. As an effect of regular training physical performance develops continuously. Therefore the human organism will be healthier and more resistant against different diseases. The aim of the training is to increase performance and to develop physical capacity as well as physical education and ability development. Moreover it provides technical and tactical knowledge in specific sports and a personality also develops due to the training. Training exercises also serve these goals. The three main sections of training exercises are developing physical abilities, technical and tactical training, education and personality development. During the trainings conditional and coordination capacities develop gradually. A young sportsperson acquires the technical and tactical elements to their specific sports due to regular practise. Afterwards with adequate development of the nerve system and physique the aforesaid motor capacities and sports specific technical elements become motor skills. Later they will be applied as a tactical element in the conditions of a competition. Trainings are implemented with training tools that have a significant role in performance enhancement and maintenance. Training tools can physical exercises, tests or equipment (e.g. dumbbell, skipping rope etc.). The inadequate workout to the sportsperson’s age, sex, fitness, mental stamina and use of illicit drugs in doping list are qualified as negative tools. A typical training program is planned therefore workouts are implemented on the basis of short-, middle- and long-term goals where the development of strength capacity, endurance and condition are varied. Every workout can be divided into three sections. They are the followings: warm-up, exercise, cool down. How the applied training methods are built on each other depends on what technical or tactical elements or skills are intended to improve. Different tests and measurements can be used to examine the efficiency of the training. The evaluated date can be utilised to make a statement about what extent the performance did changed and if so into which direction.
The components of fitness are the followings (Szatmári, 2009):
-morphological (body composition) -locomotor skills (greater joint flexibility, better fitness, strength and speed performance) -cardiovascular and respiratory properties -improved metabolism -more balanced operation of the nerve system
Priority areas for training (Molnár, Orbán és Dorka, 2013):
-Gradual increase of physical and psychical exercises to the sportsperson’s resilience. -Planned education for some exercises and motion elements of sports for the purpose of transferring technical and tactical knowledge. -Applying adequate pedagogical methods for the purpose of positive personality improvement. -Developing health-conscious lifestyle and quality of life by transferring the values of sports.
The features of training effects (Molnár and co-workers., 2013):
-A level of demand develops in sportspersons and trainers that is based on the efforts to obtain better results -Everyday workouts are part of a sportsperson’s life. -A demand develops for individual training and efforts for independency and the need for learning and applying scientific knowledge. -The training methods and implementation varies on the basis of sports, competitive level, sexes and age groups.
4.2. Sports Performance
According to Dubecz (2009) ’Sports performance is a manifestation of personality that can be evaluated on the basis of a standard in a particular field of sports. It accumulates at individual or team level. It is manifested in actions or activities, and provides measurable quality’. According to Harsányi (2000) ‘a sports performance is a kinetic result that bears theoretical and/or material value. It is featured to have cumulative and compensatory potential and to be achieved in competitions or games and it can be developed by biological and pedagogical methods. It is determined mainly by inherited factors and partly by environmental effects, in which trainings have a priority’.
The above definitions clarifies that a sports performance is a complex term that is shaped from genetically determined factors with a sportsperson’s social, economic and psychological background till the dynamical changes in their environment. So that a sports performance should be qualified excellent harmonized operation of physical, mental and environmental factors is expected. In case any of these areas seems to have deficiencies a sportsperson can perform at lower level in particular competition their capacity will be less. Capacity may be measured in two ways. On one hand a sportsperson’s absolute performance can be measured on the basis of scores, goals, time units. On the other hand it is the relative performance that indicates what position a sportsperson achieved in the ranking compared to other competitors on the basis of a particular competition. A performance consists of two components. They are the capacity and performing skills. Capacity describes the sportsperson’s motor skills, technical and tactical skills required for doing a sport as well as the levels of other knowledge and mental ability. Performance skills indicate a sportsperson’s actual emotional and motivational conditions that they can achieve in a game or a competition. Several times it happens that a spotsperson with outstanding abilities is not able to provide the best performance in high-stake situations. It means that their performance skills do not fit the level of their capacity and it results deterioration of performance. Performance skills can be deteriorated due to the loss of motivation and coordination. Loss of motivation covers for example a sportsperson’s inappropriate attitude to workouts or games, lack of commitment or even aimlessness. Loss of coordination includes inappropriate technical or tactical elements applied against the enemy, in case of team sports misunderstandings originated from team progresses that all results performance deterioration. Increasing performance skills is a priority task in sport psychology. While enhancing capacity is the duty of the sportsperson’s trainer or physical education teacher. (Balogh, 2015).
4.3. Components of motor performance
The expression ‘ability’ is a collective term including all the human characteristics that build the performance base of our personalities. It contains our abilities to cognitive, affective, social fields. Moreover the complex skills required for activities involving movement and motor skills has a significant role in influencing sports performance. The system of motor skills is divided into two main areas. They are the conditional capacity and coordination capacity. Conditional capacity provides the energy conditions to motion and it includes the group of physical abilities that insure the base of sports performance. Coordination capacity insures the control conditions to motion (Nádori, 1981). Hereinafter these two great areas will be described in details.
4.3.1. Conditional capacity
Conditional capacity insures the base of sports performance. They are biologically determined physical abilities including strength, speed and endurance as well as joint mobility areas. They are built on the characteristics of muscles and motor units that are related to metabolism (muscle contraction, the mode of energy supply) and contractility (type and number of muscle fibres and cross section). These kinds of abilities can be developed by appropriate training, changing the rate of muscle fibres, sport loading, increasing muscle mass. Among the different types of abilities it is the speed that can be developed the least as the genetically determined fibre composition limits the changes. In strength improvement the cross section of muscles increases that is controlled by hormonal effects. Therefore, a certain maturity is required, so called optimal start, to increase muscle mass. During an endurance workout muscles and fibres grow less, however, the blood supply in the muscles and aerobic enzyme activity increase gradually. Hereinafter the particular abilities will be reviewed in details. (Pavlik, 2013).
The improvement of motor skills has to be started in early childhood. It is important that professionals around a sportsperson apply appropriate tools and methods considering both the individual and their environment. To learn more details about this themes the following literature is offered:
4.3.1.1. The strength
The muscular effort is such a conditional capacity by which the muscle is able to do effort against the external stimuli. The basic units of the musculature are muscle fibres that cluster into bands, bundles to form the musculature. Each set of muscles built up of numerous muscle fibres. Almost half of a person’s weight consists of the skeletal muscles. During a workout the muscles of the body continuously tighten then relax. An effort is the result of sequential contractions. The appearance of efforts can be the followings: maximum strength, rapid strength and strength endurance. Maximum strength is generated if contraction and tighten are adequate and long enough in the musculature. It evolves with maximum intensity therefore its degree can be sustained only for short time. Rapid strength is required in case of such movement activities where the high degree of resistance can be overwhelmed with rapid muscle contraction. Rapid strength is needed for a handball player for rapid starts, rhythm changes or in marital arts to prevent strokes. In case of strength endurance muscular effort has to be maintained for a long term that influences sports performance significantly. Strength can be grouped on the basis of effort too. Therefore maximal (without break with maximum one repetition) submaximal (without break with maximum 2-4 repetitions) moderate (maximum 5-12 repetition without break) and low (without break with maximum 12 repetition) intensity can be identified. The degree of muscular effort depends on the cross-sectional area of muscle, the quality of muscle fibres and the efficiency of energy supply. Moreover mental factors like the presence or absence of volitional and motivational facts also influence the degree of muscle effort. There seem to be sport-specific differences in developing effort too. For example maximum effort is dominant in a weight-lifter’s performance. Although the conditional parameters of strength endurance is high-lighted in case of a long-distance runner. There are countless practice for strength development. Dumbbells, hand tools can be applied for strength development. They can equally develop all the three types of muscular effort in the workouts if the degrees of intensity and length are carefully chosen (Szatmári, 2009). It is inevitable to adopt a gradual approach for loading in case of muscular effort development. Before weighing a sportsperson should do general and specific warm-up too. Moreover the professionals who work with the sportsperson should consider the sportsperson’s age peculiarities. Therefore, the speed of effort will increase, muscle activity will be more perfect, the energy utilization capacity of muscular effort will develop and the structure of muscles will get thicker (Molnár, Orbán and Dorka, 2015).
4.3.1.2. Speed
Speed refers to the implementation of a motion with fast speed. It implies the presence of the possible greatest response and motion speed. Speed relies on control processes of the nervous system that is difficult to interpret in general. Therefore, it always acquires real meaning in some context. It is based on the control processes of the nervous system. Developing speed includes nerve and muscle coordination development that is genetically determined. Thus, its upgradability is significantly limited. (Molnár and co-workers, 2015). Speed has several manifestations of which the most important ones are listed below (Szatmári, 2009):
-Locomotive speed that has great significance in case of cyclic motions where performance can be deduced from the taken distance and the time period. In this manifestation speed can be decided from the rate of speed and motion frequency. In a particular exercise the possible highest speed can be reached if a sportsperson is able to implement the techniques of the certain sport at a high level. -Primarily the maximum speed has significance in athletic running and jumping contests as well as it becomes significant in ballgames. In case of this capability the whole muscular system is involved in the motions with high intensity and efficiency. Great effort is carried out. -Run-up capability is that aspect of speed which appears the most frequently and in most branches of sports. This capability in cyclic sports till reaching the maximum or cruising speed. It also identifies the nature of continuous acceleration and deceleration in sports games. -Motion speed is required for a part of the body primarily for the limbs to implement a high speed movement with a certain aim. Previous capabilities attributed to speed related to whole body motions. however here only the limbs are focused on which are important either in terms of sport (e.g. it is the arms in marital art) or for the acceleration of sporting tools for high speed -There seem to be control processes of the nervous system in the background of the reaction speed. Simple and complex decision making or responding processes are also activated here. Thus this capability goes beyond the subjects of simple conditional capacity and muscular activities.
The sensitive period of reaction speed is the age between 7 and 12. The cut-off age for the capability of motion speed and rapid strength is about age 12 or 13. Two intervals are separated in the development of motion speed. The first period of intensive development lasts till the age of 10 and the second period ends with puberty in case of girls. While the boys’ effort is flat and it improves a bit comparing to the sooner one. The most critical period of effort changing is between the early childhood and the first childhood. .The methodological considerations for speed development are the followings: exercises for speed development have to be applied in the first half of the main section in a workout when participants are in rested state. The technique of a particular exercise has to be individualized and it has to facilitate to reach the maximum speed while its implementation. In case of children it should be implemented through a game and its length has to be within the fatigues threshold and well-selected breaks have to be provided between the tasks. The results of a speed training can be recognized on the basis of the following abilities and characteristics: development in motion techniques, improvement in anticipatory skills, enhancement in motivation and concentration. The triggered testosterone during the high intensity workouts also improves speed, as well as the increase of muscle mass has good effect on speed, Furthermore, the cooperation in nerve-muscle connection will improve. (Molnár and co-workers, 2015).
4.3.1.3. Endurance
Endurance is one of the most important and most easily interpretable conditional skill that means resistance and tolerance against fatigue. According to Makszin (2007) ’Endurance is based on the harmonic operation of circulatory and respiratory organs, the metabolic processes and the nervous system.’ Endurance becomes more prevalent in movement activities, when the organism is exposed to higher intensity and longer-term physical load. The characteristics of good endurance includes economical movement implementation with excellent motion techniques elements. Furthermore it has harmonized and economical operation of physiological functions with adequate degree of effort. On the basis of endurance interactions we can identify (Szatmári, 2009):
-Basic endurance that manifests in the maintenance of durable and economical cyclic motions.For example a basketball player is able to play efficiently during the whole game. -Strength endurance that manifests in long term, high intensity efforts.. -Speed endurance that provides capability to implement high speed motions repetitively.
Endurance can also be divided into two categories on the basis of metabolic processes occurring in muscles. These are the aerobic and anaerobic groups of endurance.
-Aerobic endurance is a relatively long term balance state where the amount of oxygen required to functioning is delivered to the muscles by the cardiovascular system. -In case of anaerobic endurance the cardiovascular system is not able to deliver the required amount of oxygen to the muscular activity thus an oxygen deficient phase occurs. This oxygen deficient functioning is capable of maintaining the lack of lactic acid state only for short time (anaerobic alactic). It develops in a high intensity workout when aerobic endurance is not enough. The borders between these two kinds of endurance is very pale, however, the higher intensity workouts the acidification tolerance can be trained too.
Endurance can be categorized for further groups on the basis of duration of movement. These are the followings (Szatmári, 2009):
-Long-term endurance that depends on the individual’s fitness. But it is longer than 15-30 minutes that occurs in moderate-intensity load. -Medium-term endurance occurs when the load has higher intensity than moderate one and the duration of the workout is between 2-9 minutes. -Short-term endurance can be developed with such workouts which have high-intensity that require great effort and the duration is between 45 seconds and 2 minutes.
The methods of training endurance (Molnár and co-workers, 2015):
-Permanent method, continuous aerobic loading which can be applied mainly especially in cyclic sports. It means continuous, long constant load where the pulse is even. At this time the heart work is in economical state, the blood supply into the musculature and the blood vessels flexibility improve. Furthermore blood pressure becomes regular. -Pace game method is also suggested in cyclic. It requires continuous load, however, its pace and speed limits are determined in advance. Moreover faster and slower periods follow each other alternately. -In interval workouts one term is repeated several times where the length of the term and the intensity of the load and the length of the rest period are regularised as well as the number of repetitions. Between the loading sections there is usually a short break where the lower limit of pulse decrease indicates the beginning of the next load section. -During the repetition based method short terms are implemented with submaximum effort where full rest must be kept. This method is excellent to improve speed endurance. -In the competition method a sportsperson performs a workout just like a competition. In this case the competition term is achieved with maximum intensity under conditions such as the competition provides.
4.3.1.4. Joint Mobility
Joint mobility is considered as special skills that is situated on the border line of conditional skills and coordination capacity. Nádori (2011) appointed muscular activity as the central element of conditional skills and according to this joint mobility should be included here. ‘Joint mobility is such motor skill that enables a movement to be implemented in a great range. Furthermore it provides optimal stretch of the muscles‘ (Pucsok, 2009). This skill is determined by the following factors:
Muscle elasticity and extensibility themselves are crucial factors in establishing good sports performance. This skill depends on the effort of musculature and how the structures of muscles can bear this effort in an unusual range of joint angle. More flexible muscles may increase sports performance and may encourage to avoid injuries too.
Flexibility of ligaments mainly one of the genetically encoded capability. It cannot be developed directly though it may be slightly improved by increasing the extensibility of muscles. It is worth drawing attention to strengthening the muscles around ligaments during the workouts.
Both external and internal conditions have significant effects on joint mobility. An external factor can be the extreme weather. In this case muscle warming up must have closer attention. An internal condition can be instable emotional state that can lead to performance decrease and injuries.
The fitness level in a branch of sport also influences joint mobility. As before reaching a skill level in achieving a sport while implementing movements adverse tension occur in the opposing muscles. And the presence of this will decrease the level of mobility. In the period of learning movements the efficiency of muscle work is worse and the risk of getting injuries is higher.
Methodological aspects of improving joint mobility (Molnár and co-workers, 2015):The most sensitive period for skill developing is childhood. Later it has negative correlation to strength and muscular effort development.
Before implementing exercise appropriate warm up has a crucial role. It enables to achieve the movements disciplined and to avoid injuries.
Stretching exercise should be applied in series to that point where a sportsperson feels pain.
Applying active exercise with stretching effect enables to maintain flexibility for longer time than that of passive ones.
Improving flexibility the specific motion structure and motion elements of a certain sport are significant aspects.
4.3.2. Coordination Capacity
Coordination capacity is included by the other great area of motor skills. Its functioning depends on the control processes of the sense organs and the central nervous system. The collective name of this skills group is ‘skill’ as they enable to implement movement activities rapidly, economically and accurately. Coordination capacity includes the followings (Szatmári, 2009):
Speed coordination indicates with what intensity and how many motor units the central nervous system can activate in the muscles to achieve a movement during a movement activity. The focus is exclusively on muscles affected by load thus, the inner resistance generated from useless muscle tension should not be overcome. The level of capacity depends on at what pace a sportsperson is able to carry out the series of movements implemented during motion learning so that it should appear at the level of skills.
Endurance coordination typically occurs when movements should be implemented in case of sports with long-term or great fatigue so that they must remain accurate and neat till the end of a game or race.
Motion sensation supports to choose the right place and time for carrying out muscular effort during movement accomplishment. The learning process of this capability is faster as external and internal reinforcing signals occurs directly while implementing the movement.
Spatial orientation capability is bound to internal detection with its assistance a sportsperson is able to place themselves or the equipment required to their sports. (e.g.: a ball). To develop this capability such exercise should be accomplished that requires changes in body position while moving like target shooting, slalom runs or different types of jumps.
Balancing skills appears as a fundamental requirement of sports movements. Static and dynamic balancing skills are identified. Information required to control processes are found in the inner ear. Thus, information gets into the central nervous system from semi-circular canals and Corti-organ due to the feedback originated from the muscle tension. Balance exercise carried out in environment with difficulties are suitable to improve this skills where balance position is lost directly and effort is done to obtain earlier stabile body position.
With the help of rhythm skills and moral skills movements can be implemented in appropriate time and place. A sportsperson will be capable of transferring the ball with excellent rhythm and accomplishing dance and body movements for music. In addition they will be able to carry out cyclic sport motion efficiently. They may hit the rhythm by providing voice rhythm and keeping simple cyclic movements. It is important in terms of coordination as it significantly contributes on practical movements so that they can be carried out automatically and accurately and economically.
4.3.2. Determination of physical condition
The identification of a sportspersons’ physical conditional is so important as it should be learnt about them before starting their training work. It refers to their actual training status and how they can be loaded and which exercise is advisable or not. However, the degree of progress may be also investigated comparing it to the initial physical condition. To some extent it could be feedback with motivational purposes for sportspersons. There seem to be an extremely wide range of tools how sportspersons’ actual physical condition may be measured from simple tests to complicated and expensive instrumental procedures. Thus, before starting any examination a medical history should be made in order to learn a certain sportsperson. The aim of the questionnaire on their health is to gain information whether they take any medicine or there is some hereditary diseases in their families. To identify physical condition the following tests are usually applied (Szatmári, 2009):
The Martinet test is available to examine heart rate relief at low load. In the Martinet test after the loading (20 squats) heart rate should be measured manually for which purpose the Lorenz’s method is worth using. In the Lorenz’s method heart rate after every fifth second is noted and measurement is completed when the heart rate reduces to the baseline value. It usually takes one or one and a half minutes. A further examination method, the ECG may be applied too. First the values are recorded in resting position then after carrying out minimum load. In this case the examination of physical condition is illustrated only by estimated values as the amount of physical load is minimal.
Heart rate relief may be examined after greater loading. In this case a more concrete result is reached about a sportsperson’s physical condition due to the heavier physical load. The movement activity should last at least for 3-6 minutes and it should include sport-specific elements too. The manual heart rate can be carried out on the wrist or the neck or under the jaw at one side, however, the values of this measurements strongly depend on the person’s expertise implementing the measures. Moreover Sport Tester instruments may also be applied for a heart rate measurement when a sportsperson is in lying position and the ECG waves are recorded by wristwatch like instrument fixed onto their breast. The positive of this procedure is its objectivity, however, the required number of this type of instrument is not available in all cases. Thus, this number may be not enough in case of examining a sport team. Furthermore after physical exertion the capability of this instrument to record heart rate may be slow thus, important data can disappear.
Sportspersons’ performance is measured by the method of ergometry and with special instruments. Actually the word ’ergometry’ is formed with combining the words ’work’ and ’measurement’. Maximum physical exertion can be determined with examinations carried out by an ergometer. At this time physical exertion is gradually increased till the maximum performance so that a sportsperson will be able to achieve this goal due to its personalization and adaption to their sports. Conclusions can also be drawn from the maximum performance and the heart rate regarding the maximum value of oxygen uptake. A further method in ergometry is PWC170 cycle test to predict physical condition that refers to work capacity at a heart rate of 170 beats per minute. The heart rate of 170 beats per minute is a projected rate that is the value achieved under maximum intensity of physical exertion by a young and healthy adult. If greater performance is paired to this heart rate of 170 beats the conclusion can be drawn about that the sportsperson is in better condition. A bicycle ergometer was the first tool that was applied for performance measurement. This procedure may be accomplished sitting on a bicycle or in lying position too. In this case the sportsperson’s upper body is motionless thus, different measurements may be implemented under loading (like ECG, blood pressure). The drawback of this method that while cycling the symptoms of local fatigue this type of loading may not at all or just partly depend on general fatigue. Furthermore, during cycling less muscle mass is involved in the movement and blood is collected in the lower limbs thus, the venous backflow to the heart is weaker. On the other hand the treadmill ergometer is widely spread and an applied method in ergometry. The exercise should be completed on a wide belt or treadmill driven by a motor. Some of its advantages are that it may be installed to the individual’s skills. A sportsperson may achieve their maximum performance while running. Moreover it indicates concrete records regarding to the examined person’s running ability. Some of its drawbacks are that carrying this instrument is difficult and it is rather expensive. Furthermore during physical exertion some parameters (like ECG, blood pressure) not at all or hardly can be measured.
Spiro-ergography is a method applied for examining respiratory functions under physical exertion. Under laboratory load a mask is fixed on the sportsperson’s face. The inhaled air from the airspace flows into a closed area; to a balloon. With the help of this method the amount and components of the exhaled air and furthermore the content of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be identified too. These examinations are implemented in parallel with ECG measurement thus, cardiac disorders and heart rate can also be identified.
Measurement of maximum muscular effort is also the basis of physical condition test. The manual dynamometer is available to measure the strength of hand grip while the load dynamometer can measure the strength of strain-gauge electronically. The simpliest mode of measuring the dynamic strength of upper limbs may be implemented by throwing exercise. While the muscular effort of lower limbs may be measured by different vertical jump tasks noted with a tape measure, however, video recording is also available to diagnose the height of a vertical jump.
4.4. Physical Exertion and Fatigue
Training load is a series of objectively and consciously selected adequate stimuli that a human body is exposed to. Due to its effect adaption processes initiate that result changes. Stimulus is every effect that stimulates the tissues. A stimulus triggering also depends on the strength and duration of a stimulus. This results a response process. A reaction is generated by the least stimulus which is the so called threshold. We can identify training load (tasks in a workout and conditions) generated by external stimuli. As well as training load generated by internal stimuli (physiological and psychological processes) too (Molnár and co-workers., 2015).
The characteristics of a well-trained human body are the followings: increased performance of organ systems that functioning a certain sport activity; in rest the body functioning (heart rate in rest, respiratory rate) more economically than that of the untrained; adaption to load is easier and more flexible. So that training adaptation will occur the human body should be overloaded and the stimulus should be greater than that of the physiological. This stimulus should be increased continuously during the progressive load in order to enhance efficiency. Though time should be taken for rest even between the individual workouts. The regeneration of the human body is also significant as appropriate load could only be effective if adequate rest is provided for the human organism at the right time. The degree and intensity of physical exertion may differ for every person (Pavlik, 2013). The frequency of workouts may be expressed by quantified data like seconds and replicates. The training intensity can be described as a workout with low or high intensity. Therefore, these workouts may include from exercise requires great effort to playful physical activities. The more trained persons are the later they get tired and the longer they take the load. While physical exercise the energy supply system of the human body utilizes oxygen for muscles. At the beginning of a workout lower-intensity exercise is carried out in oxygen-rich circumstances. Therefore, the energy required for muscle functioning the organism gains in aerobic way. Increasing workout intensity and workout length of the oxygen demand in the body rises and anaerobic processes are launched in order to end oxygen deficiency. If a sportsperson reaches hypoxia later they can maintain in aerobic zone for longer-term that enables them to achieve better sports performance (Pucsok, 2009). Actual sports performance is influenced significantly by a sportsperson’s physical fitness and even their mental condition, sensory fatigue and emotional exhaustion. Physical fatigue is reflected in physical signs (e.g.: excessive sweating), though the signs of emotional exhaustion (e.g.: lack of attention) are generally revealed later and takes longer too.
Offered literature:
4.5. Performance Improvement
The topic of performance improvement is extremely important for sportspersons and sports professionals and it is an integral part of the coaching. It means conscious scheduling of a training programme that encourages sportspersons to achieve the best performance at a definite time or in a specified period. Several factors influence sports performance other than physical parameters like the athlete’s motivational needs or their mood or their actual nutrition and convalescence. All of these may not be under control all the time. Performance improvement essentially means achieving the peak performance. Maximum performance, however, may not be maintained for a long term that is why planning is important. Developing skills and capacity can be achieved by high intensity workouts when the volume of performance ability and muscular effort are temporarily reduced. Although reaching the time of a game though the length of these intensive workouts and physical exertion should be reduced gradually. As this is the time for the body to upload its energy storage after the strong workouts and to support tissue damage recovery. The transitional period includes easier workouts during the preparation time which lasts for two weeks on average. However, its length depend on a certain sport, the fixture list, the sportsperson’s demographic, social and psychical variables too. The most important skills and abilities in a specific sport should reach the peak performance for the most important competition event. For example it is the explosiveness in case of a ball game.
While planning a training programme cycles should be determined for the sportsperson or the team. These sections are strongly related to each other and they are repeated even in one season.
The cycle divided into annual phases includes the following stages:
Preparatory phase: During the preparatory phase sportspersons are subjected to vigorous physical exertion. At this time coaches establish the required physical and physiological preconditions for competitions. The first part of the preparatory phase includes mainly monotonous and long-term workouts. Later in the second part of the preparatory phase they are specified with higher intensity. This phase provides possibility to recover from earlier injuries to avoid later injuries even on a preventive basis. In the preparation phase minimal amount of technical and tactical elements are initiated and practised. Although the increase of endurance is mainly emphasized. The basis of endurance is ensured by the development of the cardiovascular system. In particular it can be improved by endurance training among sportspersons at a young age. It is a common problem that trainers urge acquiring and practising technical and tactical elements. Thus, they neglect the scheduled preparation that tailored to young sportspersons’ capabilities. This problem leads to incomplete integration of young sportspersons into adult ones.
Performance improvement phase: The function of this phase is to enhance performance. Therefore, sport specific elements are initiated in the trainings and the aim is particularly that a competitor would be the best, the most skilful and dynamic in their competitions. This phase lasts for 2 to 4 weeks and it forms a transition between performance and competitive phases. In this period even more specific aspects can be taken into account like the places and dates of events in the particular season. Thus, during the performance improvement phase the practice of specific elements are launched.
Maintenance phase: This phase takes place in the competition season when the sportspersons’ physical state and mental health are checked to be adequate so that they would not decrease. The length of this phase may vary depending on the certain sport as a season may last only some days or even half a year.
Transient phase: This transient phase closes a competition season. Here the sportspersons’ one of the most important tasks is to take time for resting and regeneration. Typically there seems to be less focus on sports but on entertainment mainly.
The sportspersons’ training occurs in cycles whose length is determined and contain planned tasks. These cycles are intended to support performance improvement and are categorized into three cycles. Micro cycles last for about 6 to 8 days and include variations of the workouts at different intensity levels from poor exercise to strong and dynamic ones. Meso cycles take place at the beginning of the preparation and lasts for 4 to 6 weeks. Though they are followed by a 2 to 4 week period. Specific abilities may be assigned and developed through meso cycles. Sport exercise is also characterized by intensive training load, however, moderate load is also common. Macro cycles include the whole competition season and contain more micro cycles.
4.6. Competing and Before Start State
Competing is the scene for the comparison of sports performance. It is where the levels of workout, performance, skills reveal. The stress caused by stake clarifies what a good competitive personality a sportsperson has or how well they can apply the acquired knowledge. Competing is a contest controlled by rules. Moreover it includes the desire to overcome someone and even it is a kind of risk-taking as it also provides the possibility of failure. The effort investigated in workouts and the attitude towards sports or a competitive situation are clearly reflected. In case a sportsperson’s preparation is not physically appropriate for an event they will not be capable of doing their best in a competitive situation. A competition contains its own stress and uncertainty that impose physical and mental loads on a sportsperson. To some extent sportspersons are differentiated how they sort out such situations. There seem to be those who like being the focal point and acting while others are rather introvert and deal with performing in public with less success (Pucsok, 2009).
The expression ‘before start state’ is strictly connected to competing. In summary it refers to the mental, biological and behavioural factors right before the start. A before start skill is one of a sportsperson’s characteristics that encourages them to concentrate and draw attention to the start even if they have mild excitement and increased intolerance. If sportspersons are overexcited before the start of a competition they are less capable of concentration. It initiates too much excitement, mood swings and disorders in movement. All these may easily turn into apathy before the competition. This type of apathy may block sports performance and sportspersons become deconcentrated as their motion fall apart. Furthermore they will feel a lack of energy and discomfort in general. Besides, they will afraid of competing (Pucsok, 2009). All this can be improved with applying the tools of sport psychology.
4.7. Regeneration
During regeneration a human body recovers its performance ability and it will not get tired in repeated exertion. Regeneration depends on the amount of time available between individual exertions. Furthermore whether lower intensity or a completely passive movement is implemented by sportspersons in the rest time available. Regeneration between rapid repetitive physical loads lasts for minutes or hours or maximum a day. A cyclical load most often appears in team games where both active and passive movement activities occur in one contest. The most important task is muscle regeneration between the rapid repetitive loads. During the rapid regenerative phase the level of adenosine-triphosphate (ATP) and creation-phosphate (KP) recover within 3 and 5 minutes. In the low regenerative phase lactic acid and hydrogen content from the muscle disappear and as a result of this the acidic state ends. Moreover the muscle and body temperatures increase during the load. In sports games such loads regularly repeated thus, the accumulating lactic acid and hydrogen ions slow down the regeneration processes. In order that the human organism will have rapid regeneration hydrogen ions should be taken away by buffers (like phosphates, bicarbonates, proteins). Lactic acid may develop to pyruvate and it burns or getting into the liver it returns to glycogen. Regeneration requires aerobic energy supply therefore, sportspersons with better aerobic abilities are able to regenerate in a short period of time. The following parameters characterize the aerobically trained sportspersons. (Pavlik, 2013):
-The glycogen store capacity of skeletal muscles is greater.
-The aerobic enzyme concentration and mitochondria is higher.
-The activation of lactate dehydrogenase is reduced thus, less pyruvate (pyruvic acid) transforms into lactic acid. Therefore, less pyruvate get into the citric acid cycle and less lactic acid can be released.
-The amount of myoglobin has increased.
-Better cardiovascular functioning.
-Better thermal control.
-Greater buffer capacity.
Such sportspersons utilize more aerobic energy source even in physical exertion. Due to this they reduce the use of anaerobic energy source. Therefore, they are able to recover their anaerobic energy sources faster and their pH values recovers sooner too. Furthermore their body temperature declines faster as well as the recovery of their keratin-phosphate level is faster and their muscular effort regenerates easier. (Pavlik, 2013).
The more trained the sportsperson is the shorter the regeneration time is. As a well-trained person’s musculature regenerates easier. Due to the more stable and constant internal environment of muscles, it recovers faster after a demanding competition. The disruption of muscular homeostasis and so is muscle soreness onset is generated from the accumulated lactic acid and the accumulated free radicals as a result of oxidative stress, as well as the penetrations of micro trauma and myofibrils after overexertion. In this case preventive steps may be carried out to maintain muscular homeostasis. These are the followings: doing post-exercise or cool-down after each game, having a massage to increase circulation, physiotherapy treatment for tiny muscle injuries, interposing appropriate quantity of rest or full-body workouts or at least having performance increasing substances (sports drinks, amino acids) (Pavlik, 2013).
Recovery activities are also important in order to avoid injuries as a regenerated human body has less tendency to get injured. When you think about the fact how much the muscle tones are increased in case of muscle soreness. Then muscles are exposed to increased risk and it may easily lead to muscle rupture. It may occurs as muscle strain, sprain or complete muscle tear. A human organism that has not been rested enough is also prone to the development of inflammatory conditions. Tenosynovitis and periostits are frequent sports injuries. As well as the damage of muscle punctum fixum and punctum mobile. In the state of overtraining a human body is not able to get used to constant great load. It may have a visible signs too; like the sportsperson gets tired soon, they are not capable of doing that movement activity they were able to implement some day before.
4.8. Overtraining
Overtraining occurs when the quantity and quality of workouts are not properly applied. Overtraining should be distinguished from exhaustion that mean the decrease of performance ability during physical exercise. Furthermore it should be separated from overload that occurs after intensive workouts and it will not result overtraining with adequate rest. Performance fluctuation may also be resulted by undertraining that originates from the low level of workout quantity. However, this phenomenon can be realised rather rarely. Moreover short- and long-term overtraining can be specified too. A shot-term overtrained state refers to a 1 to 3 weeks period that causes mainly peripheral fatigue in the overloaded muscle. While long-term overtraining takes more time as it involves increased risk of injuries as well as it is associated with long-term performance reduction. The most typical symptoms of overtraining are exhaustion and performance decrease. Due to overtraining biological and physiological changes occur in the sportsperson’s body. The symptoms depends to a significant extent on the exercise the sportsperson implemented when they carried out too much of workout. The effects of overtraining relating to explosive movements are detrimental and they occur in the muscles. While the effects of overdoing long-term exercise have negative impact on control, metabolism, blood and immunological functions. The most common forms of such symptoms are the followings: decrease of maximum performance, prolonged regeneration, headache, exhaustion, musculoskeletal pain, apathy, lethargy, increased emotional reactions, menstrual disorders, decreased testosterone secretion, libido disorders, increased cortisol, decreased muscular effort, inflammation in the muscular system, changes of hormone levels in blood, increased uric acid levels, less resistance against diseases, fluctuations in blood pressure, high heart rate, metabolic disorders and urinary problems. Overtraining seem to have several physical signs that should be recognized and intervene in time so that the negative state would be eliminated. In the interaction the methods for decrease workouts may be applied and playful activities should be added into the training plan (Szatmári, 2009).
Giving up regular sport activities should be also reviewed. The most frequent reason for giving up regular workouts is finishing elite sport. Although injuries or different crises may be in the background. Even stopping workouts for a shorter period may have certain effects. These may be manifested in complaints relating to well-being or changes in aerobic capacity. However, it may cause changes in capacity, in endocrine, in the musculoskeletal system and in heart functioning. The capability of maximum oxygen uptake decreases by 5-10%. The hormonal changes in case of short-term workout breaks are not significant, though there seem to be dynamic decrease in the flexibility of joints in the passive segment of the musculoskeletal system. Moreover muscular effort reduces too. The consequences of a long-term lack of workout is identified in case of a break that lasts longer than 4 weeks. It results a significant reduction in aerobic capacity and the amount of blood circulating during physical load will be less. Moreover the heart rate will increase and the level of lactic acid increases and muscular effort will rise considerably. Further morphological changes may occur some of which are the reduction of left ventricular hypertrophy moreover the maximum cardiac output and stroke volume will reduce too. In respect of blood pressure the changes seem to be individually varied as blood pressure does not seem to reduce in every case. Besides, as a consequence of lack of workouts glycogen use will rise which means that human organism starts fat burning at an early stage. In case movement activities are stopped due to some injuries it is worth pursuing minimum workouts with the rest of the injured body part so that a sportsperson can recover as soon as possible and in the most efficient way (Pavlik, 2013).
4.9. Doping
Sportspersons endeavour to enhance their performance that may be achieved in different ways. These include performance-enhancing effects in trainings, the work of professional trainers, applying the latest achievements in sports science, however, there are others who with use of illicit drugs alter the functioning of an organism artificially and they wish to enhance their performance in this way. This later procedure is called doping. Doping substances include such forms of performance enhancing that are prohibited, cause physical and chemical manipulations or consumed materials in abnormal amount by International Olympic Committee (IOC). Doping is despicable in both ethical and medical aspects. Ono ne hand in terms of ethical aspect is that it breaks the concept of equal opportunities against other sportspersons. On the other hand in terms of medical aspect it has dangerous effects on health. (Pavlik, 2013). The following cases are treated as doping violation (Szatmári, 2009):
-Prohibited substances or derivatives can be demonstrated for the sample taken from the sportsperson’s body. -Attempting to use prohibited substances. -Hindering or refusing of sampling. -Infringement of availability other than competitions, concealment of their actual whereabouts. -Manipulation of a doping control. -Possess of prohibited substances, trafficking or participating in illicit drug trade.
Prohibited Substances
Offered literature:
http://www.jgypk.hu/tamop13e/tananyag_html/tananyag_teljesitmenyfokozas/