3. Basics of Sports Science
There seems to be two approaches to define sports science (Balogh, 2015):
1.‘It is a system certified in scientific way established by humanity employing activities for body culture (physical education and sports) and collected experience and views. It is a science built on the basics of body culture. The content of this science includes investigation of human activities, active people in relation to quality of life. Its approach combines the legal system and notion of social reality.
2.‘Sports science is a multi-discipinary scientific field that integrates natural and social sciences. Its research field and subject are the phenomena of body culture, especially people doing sports engage in body culture activity.‘
Sports science in effect investigates human capacity and performance. Its objective is to promote individual development by examining sportsperson’s biological, psychical and social unity. The subject of researches implemented in sports science is the investigation of human capacity and performance-enhancing physical activity in order to improve theoretical and practical knowledge and to reveal new interrelation. (Bíróné, 2011). Sports science is an interdisciplinary field of science that integrates the principles, the methodology and legal system of several scientific fields. Sports science investigates sportspersons, the effects on them, sportspersons’ behaviour and anything that may influence sports performance from different aspects. The different scientific fields cover the examinations on the sportspersons’ physiological aspect, psychological, pedagogical and social effects. Furthermore they examine the social and economic dimensions a sportsperson surrounded by. During the development of sports science a differentiation tendency has been established almost as a demand with the advancing scientific knowledge in parallel with the advancing special methods. This specialization results the separation of scientific fields and the establishment of sub-disciplines. (Balogh, 2015). This chapter will present the most important theoretical knowledge of interdisciplinary closely related to sports science and their values added to sports. This presentation is devided into two main parts. On one hand interdisciplinary including fields of natural sciences will be described on the other hand interdisciplinary including fields of social science will be described and categorized.
Offered literature: http://tamop412a.ttk.pte.hu/TSI/Birone%20Nagy%20Edit%20-%20Sportpedagogia/sportpedagogia.html
Figure 1: Fields of science related to sports science
3.1. Fields of Natural Sciences
3.1.1. Sports physiology
Sports physiology is a scientific field that studies the sturctural and functional changes in organism as a result of sports and physical activity.’ (Pavlik, 2013). These changes can be translated as different levels of cell, tissue, organ system and body that requires careful study of anatomical, biological and chemical knowledge. In the followings the development of sports physiology will be described with regard to both domestic and international aspects. Furthermore the fundamental concepts and most significant research areas will be reviewed as well as effects of training physiology will be investigated too. The first and most important interdisciplinary area of sports science is the scientific field of physiology-sports physiology. Since sports, sportspersons exist has existed sports medicine has existed too. And there seems to be a demand that such experts should support sportspersons who have acquired how a human organism operates under physical stress. Moreover these experts should be aware of the anatomical and physiological effects of regular physical exercise at a professional level. The book about physical exercise was Physiology of Bodily Exercise by Fernand LaGrange that was published in 1889. In the second half of the 20th century sports physiology had a huge development and the scientists of that period were Archibald V. Hill, Otto Meyerhof, August Krogh, August Krebs. However, Albert Szent-Györgyi who is of Hungarian origin has to be highlighted in this list. The first experience among sportsmen was completed by John S. Haldane. And around the 1930’s and 1940’s sports physiology laboratories in several countries of Europe and America too. The history of sports physiology intertwined with the fields of general physiology and sports medicine in Hungary too. At first national professionals started considering sports physiology in the science of sports medicine. They studied how the mascular system works during a sports activity as well as the effects of physical stress. László Dalmady wrote the book Sportspersons hygiene afterward, Dániel Kellner’s book What should sportspersons know about their bodies? published in 1928 reviewed the physiological knowledge relating to sports. In the four universities of medicine in Hungary this topic is not an individual subject it can be studied only as an integrated part of greater subjects like sports medicine and the science of physiology. In the Department of Physiology in Szeged a Sports Medicine Advisory Centre has been operating since the 1930’s. As well as there seem to have been scientific work relating to sports physiology at Institute of Human Physiology in Budapest and at Institute of Physiology in Pécs. In 1942 the National Sports Medicine Institute was set up later in 1952 the National Institute for Sports Medicine in Hungary was established where a research laboratory was developed too and it has been the basis of specialist training and work on sports medicine in Hungary since then. There seemed to have been further development in the education of medicine and biological subjects the establishment of an individual Department of Physiology-Sports Physiology at College of Physical Education (CPE). The Department of Medicine in CPE was coordinated by Róbert Frenkl from 1971 to 2001. His book Sprots Physiology had a significant role in educating students. CPE had had an increasingly large contribution to the Hungarian tertiary system therefore it was elevated the institute to a university level in 1975. Afterwards, in 2000 the institute integrated into the university of medicine and at present it operates as Faculty ofPhysical Education and Sports Science, Semmelweis University (Pavlik, 2013). The chapter will be elaborated on the basis of the book Physiology - Sports Physiology by Gábor Pavlik’s book (2013). In this section such subjects will be discussed that are related to physical exercise and to whole human body on the basis of mainly physiological aspects. And the practical aspect will be reviewed in the section about theory of training. As shown earlier sports science is an interdisciplinary science that includes numerous fields of sciences. Although some fields of sciences will be less emphasized while others will be more focused on elaborating the topic. Physiology, sports physiology are those sciences that are more focused on as understanding the operation of the human body under physical stress may not be without the knowledge of its physiological changes.
3.1.1.1. Definition and Subjects of Sports Physiology
First the definitions of sport and fitness have identified if the physiological components and effects of sports performance are intended to examine. Sport is on the basis of definition stated by European Charter and discussed in a previous paragraph such a pastime activity carried out competitively in accordance to the rules that requires any physical activity built on physical practice. Moreover it develops physical and mental strength and its some of its objectives are to build social relations or to achieve good results in competitions. For recreational sportspersons a training can be recreation for obtaining, maintaining and enhancing physical and mental stamina. For competitive athletes a training is a tool to enhance their performances. Performance enhancement is part of a predetermined, controlled, planned preparation and its processes. During this time a sportsperson’s capacity and performance skill are developed to achieve excellent results. Training load provokes a continuous stress effect. The human body adapting to it progressively can extend its own boundaries of physical capacity.
People are continuously effected by stimuli with different intensity that generate transduction. It may mean workouts with different strength in sports. The frequency of physical load and the density of motion stimuli determine the time available for the body to the adaptation. Interpreting the level of elite sportspersons’ everyday sport activity it can be stated that if the intensity of stimulus effecting the sportsperson is frequent then more time is required for generation. It happens directly after workouts. A human body is adapting continuously it gets used to the stress and load on muscles. Therefore, the same load generates less effect on the human organism in the future and performance skill will increase continuously in parallel. If the intensity of the stimulus does not change the response to it will decrease due to the adaptation to the stimulus. To get over the training threshold the exposure to the stumuli should increase during the workout. To generate performance-enhancement effect load should be increased gradually (Balogh, 2015).
3.1.1.2. Effects of Training on Organism
Human organism under regular exposure to physical loads results numerous changes in human organs, organ systems depending on what intensity and how frequent is a physical exercise. This progress is called adaption and it is the ability of an organism to endeavour a dynamic steady-state (homeostasis) in response to different stimuli. In a sportsperson’s life adaption is occured by dramatic changes. It is the process of adaption to th environment. Sportspersons also encounter different kind of stress in their everyday lives. Although the regularly repeated difficulties reach a boundary, a so-called cut-off line that inspires sportspersons to decrease the situation that causes load and to try restoring their physical balance and mental equilibrium. The output of this progress depends on several factors like the sportsperson’s abilities, skills and personality, their stressor type, however, they are also influenced by the environment where the difficulty that triggered the adaptive progress appeared. (Schinke, 2015).
Endurance sports are dynamic and they have positive effects especially on the cardiovascular system despite strength sports that are characterized to be static with isometric load. The effect of physical activity increases the number of energy transferring elements of the cells (mitochondrion and muscle fibre) and the nutrient storage capacity of muscles. Blood supply improves, the level of myoglobin increases therefore oxygen storage capacity will increase too. All this increases the size, the strength, the speed in muscles and the time of their capacity to work. The muscle adaptations to load will be faster than that of the tendons and bones as their metabolism is slower. The changes in loading will happen with the modification of bone structure. And the weight of bone can be increased by longitudinal load (running, weight training). Overall, regular physical activity has positive influence on the human organism decreases the likelihood of developing cardiovascular diseases and promotes maintaining weight of bone in older ages too. Moreover it has positive effect on general well-being. Investigating the physiological effects of training the human motor system has to be reviewed too. The parts of the motor system are the system of joints and tendons conjoining bones and the muscular system. The active part of the musculoskeletal system includes skeletal muscle while the passive part of it includes the bones of the body and the joints and ligaments conjoining the bones. Passive parts are pulled on by muscles although the connection between muscle and the nervous system is stronger. Every movement is associated with a muscle activity that requires gradual oxygen uptake for muscles. And all this produces adaptions in the whole organism. Therefore as an effect of training the performance of the whole organism will increase.
3.1.1.2. Muscle coordination, definition of a motor unit
The definition of a motor unit is made up of a motor neuron and the muscle fibres innervated by it. The movements are produced by the motor units. In a human organism the groups of muscles coordinate the movements in cooperation, not separately through only one muscle. The intensity of movement process determines which group of muscles and how intensively are engaged in a particular activity. Muscular activities are divided into three types on the basis of internal (the ability of the muscle to exert effort) and external (resistance) muscle strength. (Pavlik, 2013): 1. When the active strength generated by the muscle is higher than the external resistance the length of the muscle shortens. This process is called isotonic contraction.
Isometric contraction develops when the active strength generated by the muscle is less than the external power. In this case the length of the muscle does not change though it develops muscle tension.
In case of auxotonic contraction the external force is higher than the ability of the muscle to exert effort. Then the length and tension of the muscle increases.
Muscles retraction is 60% of their resting length and stretching can be 130-150% of the resting length that is still reversible. In case the muscles stretch till 200% of the resting length the process will be irreversible and muscle rupture occurs. Different sports activity requires different muscle work. Sports demanding dynamic movement the dominant muscle work is isotonic. While sports demanding static exercises the isometric contraction is dominant. The level of work produced by muscles is individually different. It depends on the length and the tension of the muscle. The level of muscle strength is determined by the number of muscle fibres that is proportional to the physiological cross sectional area in muscles The number of fibres is genetically determined. During a workout it is not the number of fibres that increases but the cross sectional area in muscles. Therefore their protein composition and their metabolism though the number of muscle fibres will not change. The damaged muscle fibres will not regenerate therefore muscle tissues do not have the ability to regenerate. And also inactivity results diminishment of muscle fibres. On the basis of the muscle retraction speed slow and fast fibres are identified. The rate of muscle fibres in one muscle fibre is variable. The contraction and relaxation speed of fast fibres are high and their energy utilization is produced in anaerobic way. As they are not capable of achieving long activity the anaerobic strength reserve gets empty soon. The slow fibres are characterized with low contraction speed. They utilize energy in aerobic way therefore they are able to produce work for longer time and they require longer regeneration period. The compound of muscle fibre is an inborn quality, however, in some muscles the rate of slow and fast fibres can be changed with training. This procedure is the selective hypertrophy. To activate fast fibres fast muscle work is required while to develop slow fibres slow and continuous workout has to be applied. (Szatmári, 2009).
3.1.1.4. Metabolic pathways during muscle work
Energy transfer is required in order that human organism will be able to produce muscle work. This energy can be provided from different nutrients. There seem to be two ways for obtaining energy, the aerobic and anaerobic ones. The direct energy source for muscle work and the prior supplements are implemented without oxygen in anaerobic way. Their reproduction is an aerobic process with oxygen use. At the beginning of muscle work the oxygen demand of the muscles participating in sport activity is increases. It is followed by oxygen uptake and oxygen delivery with some delay. Thus at the beginning of muscle work deficient supply of oxygen is manifested that is defined as oxygen dept. To compensate this deficiency after finishing the muscle work the heart and circulatory system delivers oxygen dose to the muscle cells. The high intensity physical load is often carried out in oxygen deficiency namely in anaerobic way. A human organism is capable of suffering the maximum of 17-18 litre of oxygen deficiency. Although a sportsperson obtains energy for muscle work from nutrient oxidation in aerobic way (Pavlik, 2013). Energy production and use are controlled by numerous chemical reactions. Basically muscle work is an energy intensive process that is derived from a direct energy source, the ATP (adenosine-triphosphate hydrolysis). The amount of ATP stored in muscles is enough for producing about a half or one second of sport activity. It is provided by continuous energy supply, the ATP resynthesize. The prior resource of resynthesize is the keratin-phosphate that provides energy for further 5-7 seconds of work.
During some second of workout ATP storage is halved though at this time lactic acid is not produced yet (the time interval is less than 10 seconds). Therefore this period is called alactate anaerobic phase. When an organism’s keratin-phosphate supplements are off the consumption of glycogen among carbohydrates will start. This process is known as glycolysis. While at this time lactic acid is being produced though muscle obtain energy in anaerobic way this procedure is called anaerobic lactate period (30 seconds) (Pavlik, 2013).
Anaerobic methods for energy obtaining can immediately provide energy for sporting (for example in case of sprinter running). It is enough for sporting at maximum intensity level lasting for about 40 seconds. However, in case of long lasting trainings the energy for human organism comes from aerobic way. The most important energy source to aerobic energy is carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Depending on the intensity and training status in case of a few minutes sport activity it is mainly the carbohydrates that provide energy. Then comes the demolishment of fats and after 70-80 minutes of physical load proteins burn. It refers to sportspersons who are exposed to continuous load, who produce continuous muscle work like triathletes, long distance swimmers or marathon runners. They can be provided by different sports drinks for energy supplement that contain fast absorbing glucose and carbohydrates. These two modes for obtaining energy work not separately but in cooperation with each other. Moreover their participation in energy production depending on loading changes. (Balogh, 2015). At this point a further important sports physiological term has to be concerned. It is the maximum rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max). It means the maximum ability of oxygen use in muscles during aerobic load. The ability of maximum oxygen consumption can be improved with trainings. Significant changes can be realised in steady-state sports where an increase of almost 50% is possible. (Mcardle and co-workers, 2006). The value of VO2max is calculated as the multiplication of cardiac output (CO, how much blood can your heart pump into the muscles in one minute, it depends on the multiplication of stroke volume and heart rate) and the arteriovenous oxygen difference. It implies the difference of oxygen content between arterial and venous blood that namely means the oxygen rate used from the amount of oxygen in arterial blood. There seem to be a further significant definition in sports physiology. It is the aerobic or anaerobic threshold. The aerobic threshold is present in case of sportspersons at higher level of intensity. This provides better performance and it is often applied as a fitness index too. The aerobic threshold is the level where the lactate production and elimination are balanced. It means that lactic acid concentration in blood increases above the resting rates (approximately 2 mmol/l). The anaerobic threshold starts at 4 mmol/l lactic acid rate that can also be improved well with trainings. In case of trained persons the maximum oxygen consumption is at about 80-85%. While untrained persons’ VO2max rate is 55-65% (Mcardle, és mtsai., 2006). The operation of human organism is extremely complex therefore researches in sports physiology are diversified. Among the fields investigated there seem to be the muscular system, the muscular work, the detailed examination of fibre types, the theory and method of strength development., the theory of endurance and its development methodology, speed as a complex conditional skill. Moreover relations between homeostasis and adaption, fatigue and overtraining or joint mobility, sports nutrition, sports genetics, and the interrelation between training and prevention as well as training and aging. These fields will be discussed in details in paragraphs about theory of training.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtO-DzWj0fc (source: pdhpe.net, published: 2016. 11.16.)
3.1.2. Theory of Training
Theory of training is such a field of science that deals with the analysis and optimal increase of sportspersons’ performance. It reveals the methods, the tools, the principles and the legal characteristics of competitions. Knowledge of theory of training is applied in competitive sports though nowadays it is considered in recreational sports too to increase individual performance. The main goal of theory of sports is to enhance sportspersons performance to reach peak performance to set out the right form timing and to work out individual or team training plans. There are two approaches to deal with peak performance. On the one hand it one of the sportsperson’s inborn, genetic aptitudes, abilities and skills. On the other hand it is the adaptability of a human body. Training is a complex progress where the trainer has to possess not only professional knowledge but right sense of pedagogical and psychological skills. It is even better if a trainer possesses competences in these latter professional fields. The sportsperson’s psychological support is at least as important as physical preparation. An excellent trainer can recognize and employs well at the right time and individualise the training techniques on the basis of sports furthermore they develop efficient training plan. And when it is required they can easily become a facilitator, a manager or even a friend (Dubecz, 2009). The more detailed study of theory of training will be covered later. A whole chapter will set out the most significant knowledge, methods and components of this scientific field.
3.1.3. Performance diagnostics
In performance diagnostics the sportspersons’ sports performance is measured using the appropriately selected and applied most modern scientific knowledge and methods. The performance measurement process consists of three greater sections. In the first section the measurement procedures and protocols are selected then comes the implementation of measures and in the third section the results are assessed. Performance measurement requires the cooperation of qualified specialists as special abilities and skills are needed to carry out valid and reliable tests successfully. Selecting the measurement procedures and protocols is not a simple task. Several factors need to be considered to decide which parameters of a sportsperson have to be tested with simple or complex and with cheap or expensive measurement. The measurement procedure has to be in conformity with selected procedure that can be implemented with outer devices, under laboratory conditions. However, in any case the instructions or safety rules determined by the producer have to be kept. The operation and characteristics of different types of devices applied in laboratory tests are various. Therefore to carry out the examinations various qualified staff is required even to all kinds of devices. Sportspersons’ performance measurement starts with data registration. Then it ends with data analysis and drawing conclusions. Results cannot be interpreted on the basis of pre-set templates. But the individual has to be in the centre while assessment and critical thinking has to be applied. Measurements are given as reference points too as they capable of examining efficiency of training programmes and their effects on particular performance indicators. The main objective of performance measurement is to reveal and improve sportspersons’ capacity. On the basis of the results a sportsperson’s actual fitness condition, weaknesses and strengths, the efficiency of a particular training programme can be decided. Moreover, individual development plan, intervention points of a training progress or load optimization can be set out. As well as it can serve on a preventive basis to avoid overtraining and injuries.
In the followings the basic tests of performance diagnostics will be reviewed (Balogh, 2015):
Somatometry is the measurement of the composition and dimensions of the human body. In these measurements determined measure points measure the length, the width, of various body sizes as well as the skinfold thickness, the rates of bones, body fat and muscle weight. During the test a sportsperson’s body composition will be determined on a specific sport that can affect their capacity in a positive or negative way. It can have a significant role in selection or it can be a part of an athlete suitability test.
In the physiological examinations of loading measures the cardiovascular system of the organism, respiratory capacity, metabolism and what varies in them during loading. Loading is implemented on an ergometer while working on a treadmill or a bycicle. These results can reveal aerobic and anaerobic capacities, the ability of adaption to physical load as well as the person’s tested metabolic characteristics.
Biomechanical tests examine spatial and temporal structure of sports movements, the characteristics of motion patterns, coordination, the level of implementing sport specific techniques and how they can be improved. The tests measures the sportsperson’s muscle strength and muscle performance characteristics as well as the mechanical characteristics of tendons and ligaments.
Biochemical tests examine the impacts of loading in the cells, tissues and blood. The tests promote to define the sportsperson’s fitness conditions and to avoid illnesses, injuries or overtraining. In case of these tests the objectives of the test must be strictly defined as well as the test protocols and measurement procedures must be carefully selected. A decisive factor can be the branch of sport in which the examined person engaged in. Furthermore their age, sex and the level in which they compete. The timeframe for implementation, the financial resources and previous knowledge and experience about measurements influence the test method selection, the implementation and assessment significantly.
3.1.4. Sport-biomechanics
Biomechanics is a field of science that studies human motions. It examines the physical (mechanical) characteristics of live organisms’ (bio) within physiological parameters while moving (Barton, 1983). Biomechanics research mechanical truth in the human body while sports movements that influence sports performance (Engels, 1958). Let us think that while doing physical exercise the human body changes continuously. These changes are the effects of interactions between the external mechanical forces and the strength through the musculo-skeletal system. While the muscles operating physiological processes set out that results the nerve and muscle coordinated work. In aware of this it becomes clear that a live organism must be examined both biological and mechanical aspects so that sports movements will be implemented in the possible most efficient and most economical ways.
Biomechanics examines the mechanical truth in combination with the biological and material characteristics of human motions, the skeletal muscular, ligaments, tendons, neuromuscular system (Balogh, 2015). Kinesiology is a field of science related to bio mechanism that is originated from the combination of the words ‘kinesis’ (motion) and ‘logos’ (speech). Kinesiology deals with the anatomical and mechanical functions of human motions. Studying human motions their physical characteristics have to be learnt. Motion analysis applies the definition of mechanics in physics. It refers to the forces acting on physical bodies and they can be divided into two main groups: kinematics (movement theory) and dynamics (force theory). To describe a motion a reference system is required where the spatial place and position of a movement can be identified. A human body can be accomplished by examining a point in the space that characterises it. This point is considered as its own centre of gravity. It can be analysed through its way, displacement, velocity and acceleration. (Barton, 1983). Among the others this is one method to examine the effects of physical load in the structure of bones, muscles, ligaments. Human motions can be investigated in different ways either with objective (laboratory tests, video motion analysis) or subjective (monitoring) methods. To analyse and assess these measurements takes long time and it requires a suitable financial background from the sportsperson or the sports organization. Nowadays there seem to be numerous devices to implement motion analysis in the most precise way. Videos are the prevailing tool applied for motion analysis. As it capable to record motions and to replay them that encourages better implementation of motions by encouraging the use of better techniques. The quality of video applied for motion analysis (frame rate, exposure time, lens, brightness boost etc.) is a determining factor considering the further period of the analysis. The use of curtain enables the identification of the distance over time and space in the line of motion. This method applies photocells and based on the principle of photo electronics. It is intended to measure short time motions that is able to record the motion accurately and fast without visual recording. An angular measurement instrument enables issuing information about the changes in joint angle without visual recording, while accelerometer enables the measurement of acceleration applying the laws in physics. However, power meters are widely used measurement instruments too. Finally the method of biotelemetry (EKG, EMG, EEG, MR, UH) has to be mentioned that examines the physiological processes accompanying motions under laboratory conditions. The most important aim of the measurements is to monitor, select and develop those elements of motion or series of motion that influence the performance in positive or negative way. The adequate technique is characterized by being economical and efficient. That means economical energy use applied in the specific branch of sports. In sprint events for example maximum effort is emphasized though in a long term running event the possible least effort is required to accomplish the motion. To reach a peak performance the accurate implementation of motion, the right accomplishment of technical elements as well as the optimal energy use are key factors (Balogh, 2015).