1. Basics of Sports

Classification of a sport may be performed on the basis of different approaches. Therefore, sports can be grouped in respect of economics, society, sport history, politics as well as sports science. Further grouping may occur from the viewpoint of individual or team sport. Moreover on the basis of movement types they may be categorized as cyclic or acyclic ones (Nádori, 1980). In our elaboration the basis of joint classification was selected as our objective is to reveal psychological aspects, to describe skills and abilities required to sports. All this will be elaborated by introducing one by one those individual and team sports that are considered to be the most important by us. Furthermore the basics of these sports will be revealed too (Erdősi, 2008). In the description of basic sports swimming, athletics and gymnastic will be included that are classified into the same category based on sport science aspects. As the movements of all other sports are based on them. Thereafter team sports will form a greater unit. The list will be continued by fencing, pentathlon, shooting sport, triathlon, canoeing and kayaking as they are considered to be popular sports in our country too. Finally the basics of martial arts will be described.

1.1.Presentation of the Most Important Individual Sports

Athletics, running, swimming, gymnastic and tennis are categorized into the most important individual sports. Primarily they are interpreted as individual sports in spite of the fact that some of the sports listed above (e.g. tennis) can be performed in pairs, with a partner or even in turns (e.g.: running).

1.1.1. Athletics

Athletics is often called the queen of sports as it is extremely simple, accessible, very popular and preferred by many people. It contains such natural movements like running, jumping or throwing which were also practiced in ancient ages for the purpose of self- and race preservation. The development of athletics dates back to the ancient ages. Egyptians, Indians, the Chinese, Romans and the competitors of the Greek Olympic Games already performed this sport. The word ’athletics’ is originated from the Greek word ’athletos’ that meant a hard physical work with movement activities. Later this word identified a sportsperson who pursued a sport in a professional way. At first sportspersons competed in stadium running in the Olympic games then other events were gradually initiated just like long-distance running, armed running, long jump and even the events of pentathlon included athletic elements. In the Middle Ages mainly tournaments and celebratory occasions provided opportunity to compete. Although in these occasions the prior objective was to entertain larger mass of people. The different stages of development of athletics are schematically illustrated in the items listed below (Katona and Szatmári, 2009):

• In 1661 an Englishman, called Burton described the branches of athletics in details.

• In the 18th century pedestrianism occurred in England and their representatives organized running and walking competitions for wagering. These competitors increasingly arouse interest in the sport.

• The first public competition was organized in Oxford in 1850.

• A national championship was organized in London in 1886.

• In 1880 the first athletics association called Amateur Athlete Association (AAA) was established in England.

• In 1896 in Modern Olympic Games champions were inaugurated in 16, 1896-ban már 16 events.

• The appearance of new events and sports development required the foundation of a management organisation in1912. Therefore an International Amateur Athletic Federation, IAAF was established in Stockholm. The headquarters of the organisation is in Monaco and its key mission is to coordinate member states, to standardise competition rules and to register world records.

• In Amsterdam women were allowed to compete officially in one of the most prestigious events in 1928.

• In 1932 European Athletic Association (EAA) was founded.

• The first outdoor European Championship was organised in Torino in 1934.

• After the world war from the 1950’s the rapid development of sports occurred. Sportspersons were trained with the support of new tools and technical equipment and with sports professionals who had acquired sports science knowledge.

• The United States is the leading nation in athletics although the Soviet Union and its successor states and Germany are in outstanding positions too.

• The Finish Paavo Nurmi, the American Carl Lewis, Evely Ashford and the Jamaican Usain Bolt, the uncrowned king of sports seem to be among the most successful athletes.

Domestic aspects of the sport (Katona and Szatmári, 2009):

• The athletic competition organized in Bratislava in 1864 resulted the rise of this sport.

• In 1875 the first Hungarian athletic association, the Hungarian Athletic Club (MAC) was established with count Miksa Esterházy’s management.

• Hungarian athletes participated in the first Modern Olympics in 1896. Moreover Rudolf Bauer won a gold medal in discous throw in 1900.

• In 1897 the Hungarian Athletic Association (HAA) was founded.

• Women’s athletic was increasing in 1920’s too. In 1936 Ibolya Kádárné Csák won a gold medal in high jump in Berlin Olympic Games.

• The Second World War generated a decrease in the development of this sport.

• Although a national championship was organized in1945. Then the national team athletes participated in the Olympic Games of 1948.

• The 1950’s was the sport’s golden age in Hungary when Sándor Iharos, István Rózsavölgyi and László Tábori became leading world famous athletes.

• There seemed to be another decrease in the sport in the 1970’s. Afterwards It was 20 years later when the next Olympic victory was obtained by Balázs Kiss Balázs in hammer throw.

Competition Rules of Athletics

Several events are included in athletics. Running events categorized on the basis of their length include: short-distance running (from 60 to 400m), middle-distance running (from 800 to 3000 m), long-distance running (from 5000 m up to Marathon). Furthermore the multiple of marathon length is categorized as a group of super long distance running. Running events distinguished on the basis of their fields as flat race and cross-country running. Based on the nature of athletics steeplechase, dash, hurdling and relay run are distinguished. Furthermore walking and roadside competitions as well as individual, team and relay race are identified too. The jumping events of athletic are long jump, high jump, pole vault or triple jump. The throwing events of athletics includes shot-put, javelin throwing, hammer throwing and discus throwing. Athletics is a complex event in which competitions are organized with several trials. It may include seven trials for women and even ten trials for men. Beforehand sportspersons competed in running and jumping events were called field athletes while those competed in throwing events were called heavy athletes. As time progressed events were developing and more and more specific technical elements occurred just like crouch start (1887), rotational shot (1950) or Fosbury flop (1968). Equipment became more and more specific therefore track spikes, easily toppling hurdles, modern throwing circles and shot pot throw cage with net were applied in a broad range. After athletics became international the authors of the rules focused on standardization by providing an equal level of playing field. Therefore, race officials became responsible for conducting competitions.

Sportspersons are allowed to stand to the starting line only in the required outfit. In case they do not do so they can be expelled for breaking the competition rules. During the sport events a sportsperson is not allowed to apply external help and they may not have unsportsmanlike behaviour (pushing, fouls, picking somebody up, leaving the field). The precise time results of running events are recorded by electronic chronometers. If it is required when the chronological order of crossing the finish line is not obvious then photo finish is applied. The notes of jumping and throwing events are recorded by applying a chronometer or a certified tape measure. . This latter one is required to be certified on the basis of IAAF rules before the event. In the followings the movement elements of athletics will be presented in details as they seem to provide the basis of all movement activities of all sports. Furthermore running, throwing and jumping as athletic elements will be discussed by presenting sport specific technical and tactical elements relating thereto. Moreover the required physiological aspects and specifications as well as pedagogical and psychological skills and abilities will be discussed which are inevitable to be successful in one of these sports.  

Table 1 Most significant competences related to athletics and their manifestations in sports

1.1.2. Elements of Athletics:

1. Running

Running is a form of basic motor activity. Running has an excellent effect on the circulatory system (lungs, heart, vascular system) that is the physiological basis of work exerted by muscle power. Running forms the appropriate basis of the development of physical and psychic skills. It is well suited to optimal functioning of everyday life. In elite sports running is often applied for developing conditional abilities (power, endurance, speed) as well as spatial ability and time perception. The most important psychic powers are willpower, stamina, patience, willing to fight are acquired during running.

Age-related Characteristics of Running

Running occurs by increasing step length and parallel with decreasing step frequency. The well-coordinated running movement may be reached by the age of 6 or 7. The reason for this is that running is one of the most common forms of movement. A child who goes to school acquires well-coordinated, easy running in medium submaximal speed. If a young school child intends to reach their maximum speed while running. Their movement will become spastic and rigid due to their undeveloped neurological processes. At this age the aim is to endear movement, the activity that is the source of delight. Thus acquiring proper running technique has minor importance though it will be more emphasized later in their life. Cyclicality is a typical characteristic of running as vigorous parts of movement is triggered by partly resulted inertia. This motion mechanism adopts motion energy and potential energy required to running (muscle power is required). Furthermore by muscle release it makes motion economical. The basis of running technique involves acquiring the right running cadence. Running cadence includes two phases: the length of a running step and the frequency of steps. The length of a running step depends on age factors like the length of lower limbs, the degree of hip joint laxity and even the power of stepping off. It also determined by the athlete’s physical preparedness, the distance of running and the goal to be achieved. The frequency of running steps are determined by the number of steps achieved in one second. This depends on the muscle construction speed and innate abilities. The basis of optimal implementation of the running technique is proper breathing as running requires increased muscle activity. Therefore it requires more oxygen uptake and greater blood circulation (Pavlik, 2013). To carry out running in an economical way calm and rhythmical oxygen uptake is required..

Most significant competencies required to running:

• Excellent reaction speed, rate of response.

• Developed time and motion perception ability, rhythm skills.

• Adequate level of psychical preparedness.

• Possession of attention and concentration skills, overcoming anxiety that occurs at the start. • To develop adequate fighting spirit.

• Performance motivation, possession of assertive behavioural characteristics.

• To develop community and fighting spirit in relay running, to harmonize individual and community interest.

2. Jumping

The most common jumps in athletics are the events of high and long jumps that involves a series of extremely complex and complicated technical elements. The aim of jumping is to arrive the furthest point onto the ground from the starting point or to jump over a bar at the highest point. The length or the height of a jump is determined by the speed strength and the increasing speed gained from jump shot. The whole body actively participates in jumping therefore it is inevitable to develop the whole body in a multidimensional and proportional way. (Molnár and co-workers, 1975). In the basis of jumps are developing jumping skill and acquiring the basics of jump technique.

Competences required to implement jumps successfully:

• Excellent response speed and movement speed to carry out quick jumps.

• Explosivity.

• To acquire jump endurance to the ability of repeating jumps several times.

• Skills and technique to implement a jump economically by reserving energy efficiently. Excellent rhythm and spatial awareness and time perception.

• High level of psychical preparedness so that a sportsperson will be able to mobilize their energies in the very last moments.

• The right knowledge and operation of body shape and body proportions.

3. Throwing

In case of throwers greater weight is one of the advantageous physical parameters as they have to overcome not only their own weight but the resistance of the gymnastic equipment. That line-up can be more efficient when the difference is greater between the thrower’s weight and the resistance of the gymnastic equipment. Although it is inevitable to find the optimal level of this difference as greater weight may influence mobility in a negative way. In the development of throwing there seem to be great differences between sexes and in personalities. Boys even at the age of 5 are able to carry out throwing by using their whole body while in case of girls the development of throwing is delayed and they use only their upper body and arms for throwing. The correct developed throwing can be implemented by acquiring adequate technical elements. As they include special movement elements that can be learnt by continuous practice and refining skills. Developing the strength, the speed and the skill of throwing is highlighted in throwing (Farmosi, 2011). By puberty (age 11-16) the body shape changes and the biomechanical conditions of movement and conditional abilities are also modified. Strenuousness that is a characteristic of childhood starts disappearing and instead difficult movements occur with reduced motoric learning and switching capacities. At this age the depth of individual interest, the sportsperson’s motivational base determines significantly their further activity (Farmosi, 2011).

1.1.3. Swimming

Swimming is one of the oldest sports that occurred in prehistory too. Human ancestors used to apply it instinctively in order to move forward in the water. People had to acquire how to cross lakes and rivers in pre-historic times. Ancient Greeks mention the mythology about Leander in their records who swam across the River Hellespont due to his lover. In the Middle Ages swimming was regarded as one of the required elements of preparation for being a knight. Later due to the value judgement at church swimming somewhat threw away as bathing and outdoor swimming was condemned. In the 19th century this sport was started to be expelled competitively. In 1873 the National Swimming Association was established that organized several competitions for the swimmers. At the beginning swimmers move forward with strokes which were similar to breaststroke. Then the British Arthur Trudgeon’s experience gained in his visit to South-Africa revolutionized the form of swimming. During his trip he saw that local people speed their tempo by raising their arms above their heads. This was the ancestor of freestyle and it is still alive in the public as ‘trudgeon stroke’ named after him. In the 1880’s swimming was being refined more. Frederick Cavill examined the leg stroke called crawl in the Southern Seas. It formed the basis of freestyle with ‘trudgeon stroke’. One of the most important milestones in the development of this sport was the establishment of FINA (International Swimming Federation, Fédération Internationale de Natation Amateur) in London in 1908, as it became the most important international control organization for swimming. The objectives of the organization are to integrate this sport, to centralize its set of rules, to register official world records (Szatmári, 2009). The popularity of swimming is demonstrated by the fact that it is one of the most significant events in the Olympic Games. The Hungarian Athletics Association was established in 1907 and it can be stated that Hungarian swimming was outstanding at the international stage too from the beginnings. It seems to have several excellent competitors in its range. Such swimmers are among them, but not limited to, like Alfréd Hajós, Jenő Sárosi, Andrea Gyarmati, Tamás Darnyi, Ágnes Kovács, Katinka Hosszú. The scene of the first meeting of European Swimming League (LEN, Ligue Européenna de Natation) established in 1926 was in Budapest. The prominent swimmers of the international stage were the Americans, the Austratians, the Germansand the Hungarians. In the 1970’s there seemed to be convergence of other countries. Therefore, at this time among excellent sportspersons there were several Dutch, Swedish, French and British too. The outstanding competitors of swimming include(-ed): Kieren Perkins, Grant Hackett, Ian Thorpe, Johnny Weismüller, Mark Spitz, Jeny Thompson, Michael Phelps.

Fundamental Competition Rules of Swimming

Swimmers may compete in four swimming strokes in the events. The first handbook on technical implementation of swimming strokes was published in 1917 and since then the basic rules have not been modified but starts, finishes and turns. The four swimming strokes are the followings: butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke and freestyle. Swimming events are organized in pools with different sizes therefore, short distance courses (25 metre) and long distance courses (50 metre) are defined. The rules of competitions determine the width of a pool, the lane ropes and the temperature of the water and other equipment of the pool too. To implement a competition in accordance to the rules further regulations shall be complied that refer to the mode of time recording, processing of the event (pre-races, mid-races, finals), the tools, the requirements and composition of the referees, the clothing of swimmers. It also determines in what way the advertising space may be filled and every details related to swimming (Bakó, 1986).

The events of the sports in Olympic Games are as follows:

• Freestyle: 50 metres, 100 metres, 200 metres, 400 metres, 800 metres (for women only), 1500 metres (for men only)

• Backstroke: 100 metres, 200 metres

• Breaststroke: 100 metres, 200 metres

• Butterfly: 100 metres, 200 metres

• Mixed Relays: 200 metres, 400 metres

• Medley Relay: 4 x 100 metres freestyle, 4 x 200 metres freestyle, 4 x 100 metres Medley

1.1.4. Physiological, pedagogical and psychological effects of swimming

As any movement activity swimming has several positive effects on health. The water itself has a stimulating effect. It increases circulation, improves vascular tone, enhances vegetative reactions. It also has a positive effect on heart and circulatory system and it makes immune system operate more effectively. Furthermore breathing technique improves and respiratory muscles strengthen too. Swimming has a role in rehabilitation and in developing musculoskeletal disorders, and it is often applied in correction of posture. Nevertheless, swimming has numerous positive physiological effects its pedagogical and psychological outgrowth is also inevitable. It is applied for treating psychosomatic, psychogenic illnesses as due to developing body awareness it has a great effect on self-assessment. Swimming improves the quality of life, increases confidence. It has a stress reducing function that promote improving the quality of sleep. Moreover it also decreases aggression as energy releasing is significant during any movement activity. It has a positive impact on the neurological processes and on establishing a balanced lifestyle. It helps to overcome fears, to adopt to rule-following behaviour, to overcome hardship and failures, to cooperate with others and to develop further psychological construct. The personal development benefits of swimming is also prominent. Swimming movements contains a number of harmonic movement elements that also promote the development of aesthetic sense. While swimming self-control, courage, stamina, willpower, the ability to fight and endure pain as well as confidence. All of these characters encourage the development of a real self-image. Behind self-control, stamina and the ability to fight are physical and psychological terms of which basis are physical and mental endurance, (monotony tolerance, sustaining interest, strong motivation basis, concentration regarded to attention with long-term focus). In a pool when swimming from wall to wall all these abilities and skills are required. In swimming trainings sportspersons learn cooperation with others as a member of a community. They will be able to determine self-assessment by examining the rivals’ movements. Furthermore they learn how to compete with rivals and how to develop their own performance derived from defeating others. It can be stated that swimming is a complex personality development movement activity due to its physiological, pedagogical and psychological effects.  

Table 2: Most significant competences related to swimming and their manifestations in sport

1.1.5. Gymnastics

Gymnastics is the third basic sport discussed here. Its historical past started parallel with evolving human movements. For ancient Greeks the centre of cultural life was the gymnasium or gym where they organized convergence events not only to train their bodies but to immerse in art too. The inhabitants of once Hellas insisted on the fact that body and mind are interrelated harmoniously and these two can form a pair solely when both parts are improved with equal priority. In the middle ages acrobats and performers in circus did this sport. The first representative of gymnastics in Modern Age was Ludwig Friedrich Jahn who is considered to be the father of this sport. The current gymnastics involves the unit of art and sport where both tremendous muscles and aesthetic sense are required. Gymnastics also had a role in the first Modern Olympic Games and it has never been missed from the programme of Olympics. The movements of this sport represented an immensely mixed image as it had been adopted from the gymnasium of ancient Greeks by the turn of the century where Hellenes practiced all kinds of movements. In the gymnastics competition of the Olympics in 1896 pole vault and shot put were also part of the gymnastics program. In 1900 gymnasts had to present their knowledge in the competition called ‘11 challenges’. This included rope climbing, pommer horse, long jump and weightlifting too. From 1936 the events of gymnasctics approached that of today’s one where men perform in six (horizontal bar, parallel bars, combined high jump, pommel horse, rings, floor exercise) and women perform in four (uneven bars, balance beam, vault, floor exercise) exercises. Firstly it occurred in Atlanta that award procedure was implemented in every individual event (Szatmári, 2009). The prominent representatives of this sport, but not limited to, includes: Vitalij Scserbo, Larisza Latinyina, Kato Szavao and the Hungarian Ágnes Kelet too.

Competition Rules of Gymnastics

In competitive gymnastics men compete in six (horizontal bar, parallel bars, combined high jump, pommel horse, rings, floor exercise) and women compete in four (vault, uneven bars, balance beam, floor exercise) exercises. In Olympic Games first team competitions are organized and based on their results the complex field of individual gymnasts occurs. Then the 24 best individual gymnasts qualifies for the final. Since 2004 the maximum number of best competitors per nations has been two who could be qualified for the final. It may mean that prominent gymnasts fall out of the final as in the competitions per team 6-6 sportspersons of 12 nations participate. Until 1992 the competitors’ individual points accounted for the finals however, since then it has been abolished and every competitor starts the final contests with equal points, namely zero point. At gymnastic tool eight referee take place who evaluate the difficulty degree of exercises (2 referees called referee A), the performances and the implementation of the exercises (6 referees called referee B). Scoring is based on deduction where the maximum is ten and mistakes are deduced on the basis of their quantity and quality. The results of referee A and B are added together. The Romanian Nadia Comaneci managed to implement the exercises with the maximum score in 1976. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Table 3: Most important competences related to gymnastics and their manifestations in sport

1.2.6. Tennis

The origin of this sport dates back to Rome where people used to play a ballgame called ’trigon’ standing in triangle form. Later the playing field was enclosed by walls. Firstly the ball was hit by hand and later a wooden racquet covered with parchment called ’battoirt’ was applied to hit the ball. The strings of this racquet were made of gut and its frame was made of wood or bone. In 1875 the first tennis codex was published in Marylebon in which the fundamental rules were defined related to the size of the ball and the court. The first international match was organized on court covered by grass in Wimbledon in 1883. The International Lawn Tennis Federation was established in 1913 then later the expression ‘Lawn’ was cancelled. In the 1970’s the scoring based tournament series occurred called ATP (Association of Tennis Professionals). In 1975 the European Tennis Association (today known as Tennis Europe) was established in Rome. As the outstanding representatives of this sport arose from several nations (American, Serbian, Spanish, Russian) it would cause difficulties to eliminate dominant countries (Szatmári, 2009). The most prominent ones among them are: Björn Borg, Mats Wilander, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal. The following eminent tennis players of Hungary should be stressed: Balázs Taróczy, Ágnes Szávay, Tímea Babos (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Table 4: Most important competences related to tennis and their manifestations in the sport

Most Important Competition Rules of Tennis

The players stand opposite the net just on the baseline. A set consists of several games. The flow of a game includes ball passing and ball receiving that is located within lines designated. In case of doubles players the width of the court is extended. A game is started by serving from just behind the baseline. If a serve fails at first it is allowed to be repeated one more time, but not for a third time. If both attempts of serving is failed it is known as double fault the point is awarded to the receiver. In a game a ball may touch or bypass the net if it lands inside the court. A player who wins a rally shall obtain at least four points when the corresponding call is 15, 30 then 40 points. After winning the fourth point that may happen only if there are at least two points difference between the two sides the player who takes advantage wins and ‘game’ is announced. A set must consist of 6 games. That side wins the set who first win six games with a margin of at least 2 games over the other side. Therefore that player shall win who depending on the competition regulations first wins the second and third sets. A game is managed by referees their work is supported by linesmen and foot-fault judges. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

1.2. Introduction to the Most Important Team Sports

The second greater unit after introducing to basic sports is ball games. This includes football as the most popular sport in the world, handball, volleyball, basketball, water polo and tennis. Ballgames contains the combination of the movement elements of basic sports (athletics, swimming, gymnastics). Ballgames are classified as preferred by many people and a popular sport. Competences referred to ballgames will be discussed uniformly at the end of the chapter.

1.2.1. Football

Football is the most popular sport in the world today. The home of modern football was developed in England and France where the favourite game of inhabitants of the Middle Ages was ‘folk football’. This activity mainly had the role like recreation. According to the traditions over the winter people stuffed the animals’ rumen with perils originated from bewitching and then they together kicked them off from their villages into other municipalities. In this way they managed to free themselves from evil. It was the time when Calcio Fiorentina occurred in Italy which was played in Florence and Padova first. Matches were played in defined field with the presence of a referee. The members of the team were 27 who held positions in the field. The ball was allowed to touch with hand only for the goalkeeper and others were allowed to direct the ball with legs or fists into the soccer goal. What we know as football today began to spread in schools of England in 1820’s. Then in 1855 the first amateur football club, FC Sheffield was established. In 1863 Football Association (FA) was established and a set of rules was set up. On the basis of it a ball was not allowed to catch with hand and the terms of goal and offside were defined too. By the end of the 19th century the game rules also applied today had been developed. Therefore, lots before matches to decide sides, employing referees at the boundary lines, taking penalty kicks were introduced then. The popularity of this sport activated masses of people which soon fostered recovery in the business life of the sport. All this started by ticket selling. After the English initiation more nations joined them the Scottish, the Irish, the Welsh, the Dutch, the Danish and the Swiss also started to organize their own tournaments. In the first transnational meeting the English national football team played against the Scottish national football team in Glasgow. In 1904 the International Football Association (Fédération Internationale de Football Association, FIFA) was established with six nations. The World Wars also broke increasing development in the field of football but this sport may be said to be the least injured in these years. In 1970 already 138 countries were members of the FIFA. Football was played first at the Olympic Games in London in 1908. The first world championship was organized by Uruguay in 1930 and European Championships has been organized since 1960. The European Champions Cup (ECC), since 1992 called European Champions League, is the club tournament with the highest level. The most successful nations of the sport are Italy, Brazil, Germany, Argentina, England, France. The most successful clubs are: Juventus, Milan, Inter, Chelsea, Manchester United, Arsenal, Bayern München, Dortmund, Barcelona, Real Madrid, but football life in South-America represents a significant value (e.g.: Boca Juniors, Vasco da Gama, etc.). World famous sportspersons of football are widely popular and their names are much more widespread than that of other sports. Here are some names, but not limited to, of them: Pele, Jasin, Maradona, Zidane, Beckham, Ronaldinho, Messi, Ronaldo. The first football matches for women were organized in England in 189. The first official football club for women was organized in France in 1916. Women’s football was part of the programme of Olympic Games in 1996. Moreover in 2001 UEFA launched the Tournament of Champions for women teams too. Turning to domestic football we shall recall the glorious period started in 1950’s due to our Golden Team (Puskás, Grosics, Buzánszky Hidegkuti, Lóránt, Lantos-Bozsik, Zakariás-Budai II, Kocsis, Czibor). The greatest success of the Golden Team were the victory at the Olympic Games in 1952 and gaining a triumph against the English by beating them with the score at 6-3 who had been unbeaten on home field till that time (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Competition Rules of Football

Football is played with two soccer goals by 2 x 11 persons in field which length is 100-110 metres and width is 55-57 metres. That team wins the game who scores more goal in 2 x 45 minutes lasting basic runtime. It may be extended as ’overtime’ at the end of the halves to make up the time lost by injuries and delays. The fielders’ and the goalkeepers’ clothing should be different. One team may exchange three players during a match. The ball may be scored into the soccer goal with leg, body or head with the wholly ball (Both, 2001). The aim of the game is to score a goal that may be obtained by applying different technical and tactical elements, dribbling and passing as parts of a well-organized attack. The ball may be reached with hands by field players exclusively at throw-ins. Otherwise no one but the goalkeeper is allowed to reach it with hands solely when staying within his own penalty area line. The most common definition of offense is the offside rule. On the basis of this a player is in offside position if at the moment of kicking the ball fewer than two players are positioning between the footballer possessing the ball and the goal line of the opponent (the goalkeeper is also included). The footballer who possesses the ball got it from his/her own team member when s/he was staying at the opponents’ half of the field and before the line of the ball. If none of the above listed four statements is fulfilled the player is not in offside position. An infringement on the basis of its degree is disciplined with free kick and the player of the opposing team should keep at least nine metres away from the place of free kick. If an infringement is harsh (strong physical contact, intentionally interfered deed) and carried out within penalty area line then direct free kick shall be committed within the penalty mark. More serious infringements may be punished with yellow or red cards by the referee. A red card may be awarded to a player if s/she received warnings by yellow cards in two forthcoming matches. In this case a player shall leave the play field immediately. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

1.2.2. Volleyball

Volleyball is said to be a young sport. It appeared quite late at the end of the 19th century and it was treated only as an additional sport. Volleyball just like basketball was invented in a collage. In 1895 William Morgan, the friend of James Naismith who invented handball asked the question to himself why there is not such a sport where players may not arise conflicts with their opponent just like in tennis. Not later that that year the students of north-American Holyoke YMCA university tried out the new game which rules were summarised into a system by the organizers of university sports life. The mignonette as it was called at the beginning was named ‘volleyball’ in 1896 by Dr Halsted, the professor at a university in Springfield. In the 20th century this sport began to develop rapidly and it played an important role among the nations mainly in the Soviet Union, in Poland, in France. In 1925 the Council for Body Training worked out and published the first official rules to volleyball. In 1947 the International Volleyball Association was established in Paris of which one of the founding members was Hungary too. The number of nations who are members of this international association 220. It was first part of the programme of Olympic Games in 1964. Volleyball playing was invented in America but successful powers of the game are the Russian, Cuban, Brazilian, Chinese and Dutch players. The most successful volleyball player is Regla Torres Herrera from Cuba. In Hungary the Hungarian Volleyball Federation was established in 1946 and the best result ever has been obtained in European Championship in Bukarest in 1963 by the men’s team since its foundation (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Competition Rules of Volleyball

In other ballgames if a great difference occurs between the two teams the game seems to be decided. Although this fact is not obvious due to the absence of time limit. Considering its technique volleyball is one of the most difficult ballgames as the game lasts until the ball is in the air. If it reaches the ground a rally is over. To prevent the ball from reaching the floor generates extremely stress in the players, requires technical qualification and the acquisition of positioning ability. A team is required to win three sets in order to win a match. One set lasts till gaining 25 points. In case a final set is required to victory the 25-point set is reduced to 15 points. A set must be won by two points by one of the teams. In a team six players are on the floor at any one time of whom three in the front and three in the back row. Rotation occurs if a team scored a goal and it is implemented by a clockwise movement of players around the court. Since 2000 libero position has been initiated due to the fact that mainly tall players started to dominate this sport and trainers worried about shorter players coming to the front line as their team should doom to failure. Due to this rule this sport was able to keep their talents regardless of their height. One rally starts with a serve there is no second serve. If a serve failed the opposing team wins the point and the right to serve. One team may hit the ball three times in one rally. Then the ball must be forwarded to the opponent’s side preferably in a way that it surely touch the ground and it shall break the rhythm of the opposing team. If a ball is hit to the opponent side next to the pole but under the top line of the net the opposing team wins the point. The opposing team also wins the point if the player hitting the ball touches the net or their leg touches the line under the net. The ball may be touched with hands and legs too. In a team players may be substituted six times in a game except for the liberos as they must be out for at least gaining one point in a set. The size of the court is 18 x 9 metres. For men the height of the net is 2.43 centimetres, for women it is 2.23 centimetres. Both men and women present 12 teams and the usual round robins are managed in competitions where the first top four shall qualify from both sections. And then cross play section shall be launched (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

1.2.3. Basketball

Basketball is one of those few sports whose year of birth and inventor is well-known. Basketball was invented by the Canadian James W. Naismith who was entrusted a task by his superior to find out an indoor sport that is suitable for keeping the youth fit. In 1891 a basket was fixed to a balcony which height has not been changed since then. Furthermore the doorman sitting on a ladder was asked to remove the thrown-in ball from the basket. In 1892 Naismith published the rules of Basket-Ball in 13 points. From 1929 referees controlled the matches. In 1937 the professional National League was established then in 1950 National Basketball Association, NBA was founded. The rules of professional basketball players are still different from that of European amateurs. The first game played between nations was carried out in Paris in 1919. Later the rules were unified at international level in 1920. In 1932 the International Amateur Federation was founded in Genf (Fédération Internationale de Basket-ball, FIBB later renamed to FIBA). The International Olympic Committee also accepted this sport in 1934 and currently the number of states members of this international federation is 213. In the history of Olympics basketball players competed there first in 1936. This sport has been dominated by the American so called „Dream Team” almost since then. The only question arises that who shall win the second prize in different international championships. The prominent representatives of this sport are: Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, Lisa Leslie, Teresa Edwards. In Hungary the independent Hungarian Basketball Federation (HBF) was established in 1942. The greatest Hungarian success of this sport has been a first prize obtained by men’s team in European Championship organized in Budapest. The outstanding domestic sportsperson of this sport is Dr Ferenc Hepp who was a honoured member of Hungarian and international basketball life for 50 years and he was a respected president of HBF. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Competition Rules of Basketball

The unique rules is worked out, accepted and published by FIBA. Their main areas are the followings: games, sizes and equipment, official persons and their duties, teams, controlling a game, infringement, mistakes, general regulations. The game is played in court of 28 x 15 metres that is bordered with two basketball hoops fixed at the height of3.05 metres in both ends. A score thrown into the basket from farther than 6.25 metres from the baseline gets three points. Other scores thrown from closer to the baseline gets two points. If a score gained as a penalty gets one point. A penalty is implemented by a player when the opposing team accumulates a requisite number of fouls. If a throwing motion has already been on and the ball lands in the ring only one penalty is carried out. When the throw shall not get a score the number of penalty shots is two. When infringement takes place against the attacking player over the three-point line the number of penalty shots is three. In basketball physical contact is forbidden. If a foul is made on a player attempting a shot it results a foul by the referee. In one half a team may commit a maximum of five infringement however, faults committed on a player not attempting a shot will result in an automatic free-throw for the opposing team from outside. After committing five infringements each foul results in two awarded free-throws to those of the shot taken. This five-foul rule is valid not only at team-level but at individual level too. It means that a player who has committed five fouls will be dropped out and s/he is not allowed to play on in the game. A game is managed by three referees. An offense last the maximum of 24 seconds if a player makes no shot during this period s/he loses the ball. The game time takes four times 10 minutes. Players holds the ball in their hands may move only 3 steps while dribbling the ball they may step any as many as they intend to. If someone takes 3 steps with the ball in their hands then dribble it and takes three steps and dribble it again results an infraction known as travelling. In this case the referee shall take the ball from the player. If a ball is just about descending it may not be reached. However, if a defender does so it results a score to the offensive even if the ball did not pass through the net. Although in case the ball touched the basketball hoop it results a free play. There seems to be an additional special rule that a ball which is just about being out-of-bounds in the air may be taken back to the court by a player who catches the flying ball if s/he starts from inside the court and the ball does not reach the floor. In European basketball there are two time-outs per a half, in NBA the quarters are longer with 2 minutes and zone-defence is forbidden. There seems to be common rule it is that no draw neither in European nor American basketball. Even in group stages players are on the court until one of the teams results one more shot against its opposing team, (Katona and Szatmári, 2009)

1.2.4. Water Polo

The history of this sport started in England. Its first form was water football and there were no soccer goals in the pool therefore the ball had to be taken to the two ends of the pool that was interpreted as a goal. The first water polo match that seemed to be similar to that of today’s was played in 1976 in Bornemouth. In the United States this water game where players had been sitting on barrels and tried catching the ball to the goal with bats was named ‘polo’. Later these tools were omitted. These games generally resulted a lot of injuries and bruises by the end of a game. Therefore, the introduction of rules was required. William Wilson put into writing the first rules that was finally unified in 11 points by the English swimming association in 1885. From this time keeping the rules became obligatory. By the end of 19th century this sport became popular mainly in Europe, first in England, but then it enjoyed popularity in Germany, Austria, France, Belgium and Italy. In 1908 the International Swimming Federation (FINA) was founded in London where water polo was represented as an individual sport by a special technical committee. Then international Technical Water Polo Committee was established then the European Water Polo Committee (EWPC) in the frame International Swimming League in Europe (Ligue Européenne de Nation, LEN). The authority of LEN includes great European cup events like the European Champions Cup (ECC) that has been called Champions League since 1977. Furthermore organizing the Cup Winner’s Cup (CWC), the LEN Euro Cup and age-group, international competitions are also included in its authority. Due to the popularity of this game the programme of Olympic Games in 1900 also included water polo parallel with football. The outstanding nations of this sport are Hungary, Serbia, Croatia, Italy Spain and Russia. In Hungary the Expert committee on Hungarian Water Polo was established in 1919 that has been operating as an independent organization since 1989. It is Béla Komjádi whose epoch-making work is responsible for the domestic development of the sport. As he invented the ‘air pass’ or ‘dry pass’ technique in which a player instantly passes the ball through the air to another player and the application of varied game elements. Moreover in the history he managed to develop this sport in Hungary so that the Hungarian water polo be amongst the world’s best. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009). The prominent players of this sport are Dezső Gyarmati, György Kárpáti. Furthermore Dénes Kemény’s unique coach work is inevitable who managed to develop the Hungarian national men’s team so well to get the gold medals in three forthcoming Olympic Games.

Competition Rules of Water Polo

The size of the water polo field is 30 x 20 metres. Each team consists of seven players in a match and six further substitutes. After a simple infringement a referee judges a free-throw that may be carried out from over 5 metres and directly into the goal. For more serious major fouls (pulling back, preventing the offensive player from preserving their advantage) the player must leave the field of play and move to the penalty area for twenty seconds. In this case a player can go back to the field after the penalty time is over or if their team gets the ball or they get a goal from the opposing team. If a player is ejected for the third time s/he will be dismissed from the game. The duration of the game is 4 x 8 minutes where the length of the break after the second quarter is 5 minutes the other breaks take 2-2 minutes. During the game pure play time is measured therefore, at any occasion the ball is not in play the game clock is stopped. The shooting is also recorded to maximum of 30 seconds. Thus if the offensive team does not shoot for the goal the ball possession passes to the other team. However while shooting for the goal, at corner throw, ejecting shooting time will be recalculated. Substitution is allowed at any period of the game time though it may be implemented only at a designated place. A coach may request time-out twice during a game. If overtime is required then coaches may ask one more time-out to instruct their teams during the 2 x 3 minute periods. If the score is still tied after the overtime then a penalty shootout from the 5 metres line will determine the winner, (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

1.2.5. Handball

Handball is a developed form of football and rugby that is played with hands. At the beginnings it was played in Germany. Ball games were played even in the Ancient Ages however, that time the ball was coaching with hands and legs alternately. Today’s handball originated from the 1900’s. A Danish physical education teacher, Holger Nielsen created a new game called ‘haandboldot’. Czechs played a similar ballgame who called it ‘hazenat’ while Germans named their similar sport ‘torball’. The year of 1917 is declared to be the birth of this sport when a German professional, Heiser introduced a game on the basis of ‘torball’. Here players used a ball inflated with air. During the years Heiser continuously corrected and developed the game and its set of rules and later field handball developed. In 1928 with the representatives of 11 countries International Amateur Handball Federation (IAHF) was established in Amsterdam. The objective of IAHF is to refine and develop the sport more in the future. Handball enjoyed great popularity due to its weak equipment demand and its easy access. This sport was on the programme of Olympic Games first in Berlin in 1936. Then in 1938 the first world championship held in room was organized. In 1946 the IAHF was transformed into International Handball Federation (IHF). This organization emphasized greater women’s participation in the sport. Therefore, in 1949 it was managed to achieve that women could compete at international competitions. In 1957 the best of the men’s clubs competed at European Champions Clubs’ Cup (ECC) then women’s clubs joined this competition to win the ECC cup in 1961. Later from 1976 Cup Winners’ European Cup (CWEC) was launched for men’s teams then in 1982 the cup series of International Handball Federation (IHF) was launched with the participation of both sexes. The still existing European Handball Federation (EHF) was founded in 1991 and its main task is to unify the set of rules of this sport, to coordinate this sport at upper levels and to organize international events. Handball is dominated sport mainly by the Europeans however, some other nations like Brazils from Sout-America or the Japanese from Asia or the South-Koreans have begun to perform really well in world competitions. In Hungary handball enjoys great popularity. In 1949 Hungary organized the women’s world championship that the Hungarian team has also won. In spite of successes this sport could gain only a second-class status behind football therefore, small-field opportunities came to the fore. In 1951 a small-field tournaments were organized and the number of players decreased from 11. Transformation of the sport encouraged the extension of technical possibilities. Furthermore, it allowed to entertain the audience with presenting spectacular elements (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Competition Rules of Handball

The size of the playing field is 40 x 20 metres which includes two goals with the size of 2 x 3 metres at both ends. The playing time is 2 x 30 minutes with a ten-minute break. A game is controlled by a referee. Infringements during a game are disciplined. Depending on its seriousness it may be from a free throw to sending-off for two minutes. The size of the ball varies on the basis of the age-group. At a time 2 x 7 players are allowed to stay on the playing field. The players of the two teams must play in different uniforms. The goalkeepers must wear a uniform different from their own teammates. During a game the offensive team scores a goal if the whole of the ball passes over the goal line. A game is made enjoyable with spectacular technical and tactical elements that are implemented by players at different positions (wingers, centre back or centre forward players) and try passing the ball over the goal line by playing off the opponents’ defensive work (Marczinka, 1993).

1.2.6. Ice hockey

Ice hockey belongs to winter stick ball games that is played by two teams of six members who are against each other. A game is divided into three thirds. The ice rink is surrounded by a barrier that serve protection against the puck flies out of the rink. The appearing infringements are punished by one of the referees who manage the game. Their job is supported by goal judges. The Indian field hockey is considered to be the ancestor of ice hockey that was played by Romans too. In the 16th and 17th centuries a game was played in the Netherlands that was quite similar to ice hockey. Although Canada is considered definitely to be the ancient home of today’s ice hockey where in the 1870’s this sport was played with broomsticks on ice. At this time there seemed to have been no written rules and the opponents themselves decided the fundamentals of the game. In 1881 in Montreal the first teams in the history of this sport was established. They were called McGill College and Victoria. At the beginnings this game was very similar to football and the length of a match was almost two hours. In 1892 the National Hockey League (NHL) was established in Canada which is still the greatest and strongest league at present. At first it operated with its six teams but today 30 teams play against each other. Women’s ice hockey started to develop up to the professional level in 1970’s. There seem to be the greatest differences in pace and harshness unlike men. The most successful ice hockey nation is Canada though in respect of success the United States of America, Russia, Sweden and Slovakia must be eliminated too. Ice hockey has become a sport of Olympics since 1920. The Hungarian Ice Hockey Federation was founded in 1941 and it was replaced by the Hungarian National Skating Federation in 1957. The acceptance of the first indoor ice rink was rather late in 1982. As a result of this the developing tendency of ice hockey started later in Hungary, (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Competition Rules of Ice Hockey

Ice hockey teams include 20-20 dressed players of whom only 6-6 are allowed to stay in the rink at a time. Players may be replaced at any moment of the ice hockey match. Special protective clothes help the players to prevent injuries because of body contacts. In ice hockey the following positions occurs: a goalkeeper, a right defence, a left defence, a centre, a right wing, a left wing. The length of a game is: 3 x 20 minutes with one 15 minutes break. The length of the ice rink is 56-61 metres and its width is 26-30 metres. It is surrounded by a 100-122 centimetres high barrier. And the goal is also part of the rink that has a height of 122 centimetres and a width of 183 centimetres. There are five appointed faceoff spots in the rink that are indicated with red circles except for the one which is stated on the middle of the rink as it is a blue circle. While free throws are carried out from these faceoff spots one-one player of both teams are standing opposite each others and the referees takes the puck into play. During a game body contact is permitted. Stronger technical fouls results penalty shots. It shall be carried out an appointed player from the centre red line and their aim is to score a goal by circumventing the goalkeeper. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

1.2.7. Most Important Competences Relating to Ballgames and their Manifestations in the Sports

Table 5: Most important competences relating to ballgames and their manifestations in the sports

In the following greater unit will introduce the traditional Hungarian sports. Here the main characteristics and rules of fencing, pentathlon, shooting, boxing, wrestling and judo will be introduced.

1.3.3. Triathlon

Triathlon requires special endurance. It is extremely complex it includes more branches therefore, a competitor must possess all the movement elements of swimming, cycling and running at a high level. In 1920’s the first triathlon competitions were organized in France where sportspersons were required to run 4 kilometres then to cycle 12 kilometres and finally to swim across the River Marne. There seems to be no unique teory about the development of this sport. According to some statements it was founded in San Diego Track Club by sportspersons just for pleasure. Based on other statements American traps settled in Hawaii started to compete with each others to show their strength. The first modern triathlon was organized in Mission Bay in 1975. At this competition the participants were required to swim half a mile then to cycle 20 miles and further 5 miles was required to run. In 1989 the world association was founded to this sport it is the International Triathlon Union. The distances of the triathlon sport events at the Olympics are the followings: a 1500-metre swim, a 40-kilometre cycle and a 10-kilometre run. In 1984 the European Triathlon Union was established then in 1989 the International Triathlon Union. Considering the equipment required to öttusa triathlon it is not an asset intensive sport. And due to this fact it has been available easily for several nations. Currently the international association includes 121 countries. Triathlon was introduced first at Olympic Games first in 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. The Hungarian Triathlon Union was founded in 1989. The fact that world and European championships or qualification tournaments have been organized in Hungary at several occasions reflects very well the development of the sport in Hungary.

Most Important Competition Rules of Triathlon

In every competition for women and men 55 athletes compete. In the sport restrictions applied exclusively on the equipment. In swimming any kind of stroke is permitted to apply. In cycling wearing a helmet and some kind of clothing are inevitable. Furthermore, wearing some clothing while running is also required. The area where the change is made from one sport to the next is called ‘transition area’. Each competition is started by a wave and there is no possibility to rest between two events. Changing clothes occurs randomly (Engelhardt, 1996). The final part of a competition is running.

1.3.4. Pentathlon

Pentathlon has been part of the programme in Olympics since 1912 although examining its history we must date back to the pentathlon competition of the Olympic Games in ancient Greece. The ancient Greek pentathlon involved four events of athletics like the elements of running, long jump, javelin and discus throw besides wrestling. Today’s modern pentathlon has changed significantly and includes the elements of five different sports. They are running, equestrianism, fencing, swimming and shooting (Dávid, 1983). Pentathlon is a very demanding competition among sports as in two days sportspersons are required to perform such events that requires completely different skills. Therefore, they push the limits of their physical performance and they should adapt to different sports with flexible changes. This is the reason why the competitors of pentathlon are called ‘the Rambo of pentathlon’. The International Modern Pentathlon Union was founded in 1948 that has been changed a bit since then but its role remained that involves organizing world competitions, controlling the sport and developing sets of rules. This sport highly demands equipment therefore, interest in it was lower and it was treated as a sport for traps solely. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Most Important Competition Rules Related to Pentathlon

The order of the events are the followings: shooting, fencing, swimming, equestrianism, running. Conducting the competitions takes more days because of the physical exertion on the competitors. The performance of the sportspersons are evaluated by scores registered after every event. This will be the basis of the final order. In shooting a competitor shoot 20 shots over a distance of 10 metres, in swimming they perform a distance of 200 metres, in running the distance is 3000 metre and in equestrianism they ride across different obstacles to complete the field. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Table 8: Most important competences related to triathlon and pentathlon and their manifestations in the sport

1.3.5. Shooting

Archery is considered to be the basis of shooting. At the beginnings archery was applied for getting food then during the wars and fights it was utilized as a weapon to try solving a problem. In the 14th century guns appeared and later front-loading guns and guns with clips were constructed. Shooters had to practice a lot to make their targets and shots more punctual. In this way a continuous development started in this sport and at the same time its popularity increased. Shooting was part of the programme of Modern Olympics with three competitions in 1896. The International Shooting Union was founded in 1907 then FITASC (Fédération Internationale de Tir aux Armes Sportives de Chasse) was created for shotgun competitions was created in 1921 that has been coordinating professional shooters’ organizations since 1967. Women began competingin European Championships in 1955, then in world championships from 1958 (Katona and Szatmári, 2009). The outstanding representatives of this sport are: The Russians, the Americans, the Germans and the Hungarians who are also included among the best nations.

Competition Rules of Shooting

In shooting individual and team competitions are also organized. There seems to be different rules for various disciplines. During qualifying competitions the Shooters with rifles shoot at a target with ten rings. When a wound touches the line of a ring the score the ring with the higher score will be the result. In finals shooting is stated on the start signal of the judge. Both the scores of the qualifying competitions and the results of the finals will be calculated to the final scores. If there is a tie the method of sudden death is applied therefore, that competitor wins whose shot score will be higher and becomes ahead of the other while shooting. . Shooters with pistols also shoot to a target with ten ring although here only the results of the five rings with the highest points are calculated to the score. Pistol shooters compete they exclusively in standing position and the rifles is allowed to hold only with one hand. It is forbidden to use their other hand. The top six athletes advance to the final match despite other disciplines where the top eight shooters are allowed to compete with each other. Skeet and trap shooters who shoot a moving target try hitting the flying clay targets with their shotgun. They implement all this from different stations. The clay targets fly at different trajectories and are thrown from different directions. A shooter starts shooting the clay targets on a start signal and shots can be judged if at least one piece of clay has fallen on the ground which is visible. In the events shooting distance, ranges and the shooters’ positions are controlled too. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Table 9: Most important competences related to shooting and their manifestations in the sport

1.4. Marital Arts: Wrestling, Judo, Boxing

Marital arts include elements of instinctive behaviours of ancient times. Human nature carries the fighting structure originated from obtaining food, mate selection and protecting property. Body-contact fights where opponents endeavour to keep the other off their balance and throw and pin the opponents to the mat, force them to the ground. In other words to win and overcome their opponent. In wrestling two styles of competitive wrestling have been evolved. One is called Greco-Roman wrestling and the other is the freestyle wrestling. In freestyle wrestling the opponent may be held below the waist. Moreover, it allows the use of legs and tripping in offense and defence. However, in Greco-Roman style that forbids holds below waist, active use of legs or tripping and also forbids holding with a leg. The competitors may compete in different divisions. They start from two branches and compete by direct elimination to the final. The fight lasts for about five minutes and during this time fighters can win points for themselves. Then the judge signs the fighters’ points by handed upon the score sheet with appropriate number and colour. During a bout a referee may punish faults by withdrawing the wrestler from the competition whose job is supported by a judge, a mat chairman and a timekeeper (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Judo is a Japanese self-defence marital art and it includes the movement elements of every nation’s own body culture. This sport is based on the harmony of strength and balance. That fighter will win who is able to fight their superiority with definite grips and throws. A winner often force their opponent into a pin with pin or grip or arm bar techniques to such a position where a defensive fighter is forced to be immovable and remains incapable and due to this they are forced to give up the fight. In judo ‘ippon’ is an often applied technique that is awarded for a successful throw or for a pin when the opponent falls on their back. This throw is awarded with 10 points.. A waza-ari throw is awarded with 7 points, when the opponent does not exactly falls on their back. A yuko results 5 points and a koka is a throw that results 3 points. The rules punish both infringements and non-aggression. Both fighters have the chance to win a match until the very last second as a throw with higher scores can be carried out at any time. An opponent may give up the match with knocking (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Boxing is also one of the popular marital arts. Boxing is sometimes called ‘noble art’. Its fundamental rule is to carry out as many relevant hits as possible on the opponent’s body, head that may result a victory on the basis of scores or disqualification or knocking out Sportspersons wear boxing gloves and they are obliged to wear protective equipment (a headgear ezt 2016-ban eltörölték, a mouth guard, a groin protector, a chest guard and a back supporter) as part of their clothing. Each match is preceded by a compulsory medical check and weighing, as competitors fight against each other on the basis of heir divisions. A judge’s role is to enforce the competition rules and control a fight with commands. The result of any match may be determined immediately with a KO punch. In this case a judge makes a ten-second count to the fighter fell to the canvas and unable to rise to their feet then the judge announces the winner’s name with raising their arm. There seem to be three judges who score the match sitting separately from each other and score each bout. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Table 10: Most important competences related to marital arts and their manifestations in the sport

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1.5. Winter Olympic Sports

On the basis of current rules the Olympic program medals may be gained in six sports. Therefore, this chapter will discuss these sports which are the followings: ski, biathlon, skating, luge, ice hockey and curling.

Ice hockey is a racket sport that is played by teams with six members. The length of a game is 3 x 20 minutes pure playing time and the thirds are separated from each others with 15 minute breaks. The rink is surrounded by a barrier and the ball is a special puck made of vulcanized rubber. It can be shot onto the goal with a special bat called ‘stick’. The playing rink is spread behind a goal too therefore a puck may be shot from there too by any player of the offensive team. Referees manage the games and control fouls. Their work is supported by two linesmen. To name this sport the expression ‘hooky’ is also common that may origin from the English word ‘hooked’. During a match a fight is permitted if a run-up is started from not farther than two steps. The most famous league of the sport, the NHL (National Hockey League) was established in Canada in 1982. (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

Within ski sport several events can be identified and all of them requires the possession of different tactical and technical repertoire. These sports are the followings: alpine ski (downhill skiing, slalom, giant slalom, super-giant slalom, Nordic combined), Nordic ski, snowboard and ski jumping. Skiing is a strongly climate-related sport. Due to this fact the dominant nations of this sport include the North-Americans, the Austrians, the French and the Italians. In downhill ski the aim of the competitors is to complete the field in the shortest period of time. Their average speed of skiing is 100 km/hour. In the Nordic combined event consists of ski jumping and cross country skiing. Cross country skiing is implemented with classic and free styles over different distances. In classic cross country skiing a sportsperson support their steps with ski poles in case of diagonal steps by turns. When they do not step they drive themselves with the help of double pole technique. In free style competitors may ski applying any kind of ski technique. Ski jumping is one of the most spectacular element of this sport. Competitors jump a trial and two jumps scored at degrees with different heights (70-120 metres). Women do not compete in this event until the current date. Biathlon consists of biathlon cross country ski and shooting where competitors move in free-style running and they stop at the shoot stations and shoot in prone or standing position. A failed shoot results time penalty. The final score is determined on the basis of the time results. In bobsleigh competitors steer and accelerate the device to high speed while sitting (in a bob) or lying (on a sleigh). A bobsleigh is controlled by a two or four membered teams. Their role is to push the bob applying the full strength of their muscle from resting position. Then they jump into the bob and steer and control it while sleighing on the iced tracks (Katona and Szatmári, 2009).

The events of skating includes figure skating, ice dance, synchronized skating, long track speed skating, short track speed skating of which it is synchronized skating that is not part of the programme of Olympics. In figure skating sportspersons endeavour to achieve and implement the artistic elements more and more perfectly. This sport includes both individual and duo skating. Single programs consists of two parts that must be performed in a definite time period by the skaters. These are interpretation (the harmonization of technical and artistic performance are emphasized) and interpretive free skate. Ice dance is evaluated by judges in scale from 0 to 5. In speed skating two competitors at a time skate on the ice to anti-clockwise direction on the ice. And the objective is to complete the track appointed (Jakabházi, 1970).