4.Psychological features of peak performance

The most familiar, yet uncertain, area for sports psychologists is the ability and characteristics of athletes to achieve peak performance. This is the area most frequently asked for, recommended or coveted by individual and team sportsmen, coaches and club leaders, and even by the parents of juvenile athletes, most often with this issue, they are looking for sports psychologists. It is difficult to accept that there is no perfect formula, proven miracle cure or just a method to educate a champion with even a hundred talented athletes. Typically, the peak performance depends on the individual and current level of ability of each athlete, as well as the motivational and objective background factors can greatly influence or even compensate for potential competence gaps. However, if we have to follow a guideline to achieve peak performance, we can assume that the achievement of peak performance is most likely if the athlete’s abilities match the requirements or challenges of a particular sport and competitive environment (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990; Jackson, 1992, 1993, cited by Tóth, 2010).

We can also state that this psychological state can only be examined in the individual mental and physical components of athletes and in individual patterns. In any case, you can expect a certain level of physical condition, tactical and professional skills and the ability to complete the sporting activities required for peak performance during training. Mental abilities (such as mental endurance and stress tolerance or attention capacity and pattern) can compensate for any physical deficiencies up to a certain level, but an appropriate level of fitness is essential. Analysing the mental, physical and technical skills of the Olympics, they found that mental preparedness had a major impact on the achievement of peak performance at the athletes, and significantly predicted their success (Orlick and Partington, 1988, cited by Tóth, 2010). It can be assumed that from the point of view of peak performance the athlete’s individual mental background factors are worth looking for in order to find the most effective background pattern.

4.1. Psychological profile of peak performance

Ravizza (1977) conducted a qualitative study of top-of-the-line athletes experiencing peak performance to explore the feelings of success and victory. More than three quarters of athletes reported the following experiences (Ravizza, 1977, cited by Tóth, 2010, see Figure 3.):

Figure 3. Main characteristics of peak performance

Positive self-evaluation of perceived abilities and accurately circumscribed target orientation may also be associated with experiencing peak performance. One of the most important predictor factors is how the athlete perceives and judges their abilities, because if the athlete basically believes in himself and in his abilities, he will be more likely to perform well in stressful and challenging competitive situations. This tendency points in the direction that if athletes acquire prior skills that can increase their belief in themselves, they can be more confident, they can only focus on the particular challenge in the competitive situation.

Athletes who also have realistic but also challenging goals are more likely to achieve peak performance status (Ravizza, 1977, cited by Tóth, 2010).

In addition, the mental state characteristic of peak performance may be supplemented by the following (Jackson, 1985, cited by Tóth, 2010):

• Maintaining self-confidence and a positive attitude towards yourself, • The optimal activation level, • Reaching the right level of motivation, • Positive team interactions, • Preliminary experience with peak performance.

McCaffrey and Orlick (1989, cited by Tóth, 2010) summarized peak performance results in the following factors: - Full commitment to sport, - Setting clearly defined realistic goals, - Recognizing the importance of mental endurance and stress management, preparing for challenging situations, - Training and Competition Plans, - Regardless of the outcome of the competition.

4.2. What kind of psychological features effective athletes can be characterized?

To sum up, the following psychological qualities have been found in successful athletes, regardless of the level of sports pursued (Lénárt, 2009, cited by Tóth, 2010). They are characterized by a high level of self-confidence, successful athletes trust themselves and their abilities as their less successful counterparts. Concerning their concentration, successful athletes are less distracted by their attention, less disturbed by external stimuli, and able to maintain continuous attention. In terms of their commitment, successful athletes are completely tied to their chosen sport. In anxiety management, successful athletes are able to re-frame their competitive anxiety in such a way that their performance can be enhanced. They can learn from their own shortcomings and mistakes, so they are incorporated into their training and competition plans. It is also capable of eliminating possible negative effects from the outside and is able to use the technique of concentrating on the positive output (Lénárt, 2009, cited by Tóth, 2010).

4.3. The role of mental endurance (resilience) in achieving peak performance

In the previous sub-chapters, we have seen that there is considerable interest in exploring in sport psychology what can cause peak performance athletes. It can be assumed that athletic performance is mainly influenced by stressors such as psychological (e.g. concentration, situation assessment) and physical (e.g. defective movements) errors, tolerance of pain, speed of recovery from injury, and observation of the defects and successes of the opponent, punishment from judges, possible negative feedback from coaches and teammates, which is not easy to cope with. They found that if athletes were unable to cope with the stress they perceived as threatening, their athletic performance was reduced (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2012; Galli and Vealey, 2008; Hosseini and Besharat, 2010, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015).

There was also the possibility that mental stamina is a concept that spans over several psychological areas and includes stressors, cognitive evaluation, and factors such as positive personality, motivation, trust, focus and perceived social support (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2012, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). The stressors were grouped in three categories: competition (in sport), organization (eg organizing participation in competitions), problems in the area of personal space (family). In addition, stressors have been categorized into different categories: competitive preparation (workouts, expectations, training camps and opponents), the sports organization where the athlete works (club owner, senior coaches, sports policy), personal non-sporting events (family, friends, Diseases, etc.) When examining the relationship between stress exposure, stress resilience, and performance, subjects found that if they had not experienced specific stressors (eg, divorce, serious illness, career-threatening), they would not have achieved outstanding performance then (eg they would not have won a gold medal). That is, they thought that they needed some degree of stress to achieve exceptional performance (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2012, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). In addition, they found that world-class athletes consider stressful situations, challenges as development opportunities. In addition, at a critical moment in victory, they were able to significantly increase their effort and defeat the learning surface.

According to Fletcher and Hanton (2003, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015), the characteristics defining athlete resilience behaviour are self-confidence, focus, hard work morale and optimism. According to Galli and Vealey (2008, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015), the resilient athlete is determined, committed to his sport, loves to compete, thinks in perspective, wants to develop, learn, motivate and help his teammates. In addition to stress and challenge, metacognition (Flavell, 1979, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015) is also a significant component of resilient behaviour and sports performance. Many authors believe that mental endurance is a multidimensional factor that includes variables such as temperament, personality, special abilities, problem-solving ability, coping strategies (Galli and Vealey, 2008; Gould, Dieffenbach and Moffet, 2002; Hosseini and Besharat, 2010, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). There are several stressors in the sport that can negatively affect performance. Such stressors may be the poor quality of social interactions between coaches and players, inadequate communication channels, and the losing of teammates (Holt and Hogg, 2002, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). In order to talk about resilience in sport, two factors must be met: one is the major challenge (risky, challenging situations, difficulties); the other is successful adaptation (Masten and Obradovic, 2006; Werner, 1993, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015).

Resilience is seen as the ability to allow the individual to adapt positively and to respond resiliently during the trials. Athlete resilience responses vary depending on the nature of the solution required by the particular situation. Such are flexible recovery, coping with stress, and it may also be necessary to develop abilities that allow athletes to solve certain stressful situations or to see development opportunities in crisis situations (Brown, Lafferty, and Triggs, 2014; Maddi, 2007, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015).

Holt and Dunn (2004, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015), examining first-class football supply, found that mental endurance is one of the important factors determining performance and sporting success. Galli and Vealey (2008, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015), based on the results of their qualitative study, draw attention to the importance of the duration of the crisis and the problems in the mental endurance studies; the risk, how deep the trauma is; how coping strategies work; what are your personal resources (determination, self-confidence, self-image). According to them, the resilient person is easily adaptable, able to concentrate under pressure, and can also handle unpleasant feelings. The authors conclude that there is a positive correlation between resilience, self-confidence, focus, personal reflection and perceived social support. Hosseini and Besharat (2010, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015), based on quantitative research on 139 athletes, have a positive correlation between psychological well-being, sports performance and mental endurance; however, there is a negative correlation between distress and performance; in addition, distress has a negative correlation with performance, well-being and mental endurance. Thus, it can be said that a high degree of mental stamina helps to develop positive emotions, while allowing us to overcome unfavourable experiences and return to our normal functioning state.

Mental fitness is closely related to successful sports performance and mental health, strengthens the athlete, helps maintain integrity, and thus influences sports performance. Mental endurance also allows us to endure negative feelings, feel control over problematic situations, and maintain faith in positive outcomes. Research by Brown, Lafferty, and Triggs (2014, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015) shows that the most determining factors for resilience are the nature of the trials (eg injuries that potentially end the sporting career, the timing of injuries, such as competition at the beginning of the season. In addition, the responses to the trials (eg. cognitive responses: internal focus, attention, competitiveness; retention of motivation; behavioural strategies: perseverance, standing, seeking social support), commitment and passion for sport. The above factors that affect the resilience of the trials have a key role in the athlete’s performance in the long run. In addition, internal motivation, internal focus, and focus on self-performance determine how to adapt to new, unexpected and challenging situations.

In summary, the resilience attitude towards the trials can develop when the athlete encounters situations that are full of challenges, difficulties, stress, and uncertainties, where he can experience successful adaptation and, in a later situation, successfully exploit the positive experience. During such personal resilience development, we acquire adaptive properties, traits and thinking strategies that later result in successful resilient behaviour.

Mental endurance in team sports

At the team level, mental endurance is seen as a supportive relationship characterized by trust, cohesion, creativity, collective efficiency, and quality (Morgan, Fletcher, and Sarkar, 2013, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). The more stress a team struggles with in their daily lives, the easier it is to adapt to new situations, to face challenges. The team’s resilience characterizes the team as if it were an individual feature. In contrast, Brodsky et al. (2011, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015) studied resilience in a process psychological context as a process. It is believed that the development of resilience requires an organizational culture that strengthens the cohesive power of the community. Individuals are then able to reorganize organizational stressors positively, individuals act according to the organisation’s goals and guidelines, but to develop a common system of values and promote flexible adaptability in the team (Wagstaff, Hanton and Fletcher, 2013; Morgan et al., 2013, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). Resilience is considered to be a dynamic process, as it depends on the race time, the injuries in the team, the nature of the perceived trials and their intensity. They also perceive the phenomenon as a psychosocial process, which is based on interdependence, interdependence, on the support of one another, on the experience of togetherness. It protects the team and the individual from the negative stressors and allows for positive adaptation.

Morgan, Fletcher, and Sarkar (2013, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015) in their study divide the process of mental endurance into three stages in team sports. The resilience of the early team can be determined by team formation and the shaping of the selected frame. In the first phase, the inspirational methods of the head coach, the formation of team spirit and motivation are significant in terms of mental endurance. At this early stage, the team’s resilience was enhanced by team-mates sharing their experiences; they were able to learn from mistakes and recessions; at the same time, they were able to tolerate criticism and frustration after unfavourable games (from the media and the public). In the second phase, when the team becomes unified, team identity is characterized by a common identity, and teammate relationships can be transformed into friendship, believing in each other. Resilience can be shaped by shared leadership roles; setting high standards despite difficulties; learning from mistakes, ability to progress, learning from each other; and to be able to gain strength even after a downturn. The third phase in the development of mental endurance is when social identity plays a central role, when team members are confronted, reflect individual and collective weaknesses and collectively take responsibility as a result of successful team building. Characteristics of the resilient athlete

There are a number of psychological factors that play a role in the context of stress, resilience, and performance, while also characterizing a resilient person. Athletes with high mental stamina (resilience, good attitude) are open to new experiences, stable, conscientious, optimistic, proactive, innovative personalities, looking for challenges, always setting new goals, active and in constant motion (Baker, Coté and Deakin, 2005; Feltcher and Sarkar, 2012, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). The resilient athlete is also characterized by passion for his sport, a very strong pursuit of his goals, and an increased need for social recognition. They want to be the best, they are committed to this constant challenge and performance (Treasure, Lemyre, Kuczka and Standage, 2007, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). High level of confidence among athletes, not only the belief in themselves, but naturally trust in their own preparedness, are aware of their strengths and weaknesses; in addition, they are able to visualize, re-play and anticipate situations emerging during matches; at the same time, they trust their teammates as well as their belief in the victory (Woodman and Hardy, 2003, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015).

Jones, Hanton and Connaughton, 2007, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015) have identified four dimensions of mental endurance: attitude (attitudes and orientation), training (as a source of motivation for long-term goals, domination of the environment, personal standards), competition (pressure management, conviction, self-regulation, goal management, domination of consciousness and thoughts and emotions, relationship management), and post-competition status (dealing with failure and success).

Resilient athletes are able to exclude external factors and focus solely on themselves in the situation, able to turn their attention system on and off (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2012, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). It is important for them to have the perceived social support, respect and trust received from the family, the coach, the friends, and the fans (Freeman and Rees, 2009, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). In addition, athletes with high mental stamina are able to formulate what they want and how they want to achieve in their athletic career, try to overcome their performance failures and draw appropriate conclusions, develop, learn, and be characterized by rapid cognitive reactions (Hays, Thomas, Maynard and Bawden, 2009, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015). These athletes are able to maximize their potential, and what is really important for a professional NBI athlete is that they are able to use their power resources gradually during a sports season (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2012, cited by Csukonyi et al., 2015).

CHECKING ISSUES

1. What is the definition of peak performance?
2. What are the most common psychological features of peak performance?
3. How does psychological profile of peak performance like?
4. What kind of psychological features effective athletes can be characterized?
5. What are the key roles of mental endurance (resilience) in achieving peak performance?