3. Sports Psychological Methods

“The tests and instrumental measurements used in sport psychology are both preventive, ie they are aimed at preventing the problem. The results provide significant help in selecting talented athletes and in training corrections. If the athlete comes up with an existing problem, the tests will provide a point of reference for the professionals to choose the methods used in their subsequent work, ie in which areas the athlete should be developed. They are also suitable for some medical screening of instrumental measurements (eg examination of peripheral vision).” (Balogh, 2016)

3.1. Main sport psychological tests

“All tests in this group are not complicated to add test tool. Over a period of a few minutes to approx. they can be filled in one hour. The main group of sport psychological tests are:

  1. Performance and ability tests
  2. Projective tests
  3. Personality tests
  4. Other tests developed for athletes
  5. Instruments for instrumental testing

The main tests for each category are briefly described below.

Performance and ability tests

WAIS-IV - Weschler Adult Intelligence Test: The Wechsler Intelligence Test is a revised and modernized version of a measuring device known as MAWI in Hungary, which was developed in 2008. The Hungarian adaptation has been used since 2010. The test can be used over 16 years of age. WAIS-IV distinguishes 4 indices that reveal different aspects of intelligence:

  • Verbal understanding,

  • Perceptual conclusion

  • Working Memory,

  • Processing speed.

The index-based profile can provide a useful point of reference for the cognitive abilities of the subjects. WAIS-IV consists of 10 subtests and 5 additional subtests:

  • Subtests of Verbal Understanding: Common Reporting, Vocabulary, General Understanding, Word-reading.

  • Subtests of the perceptual conclusion: mosaic test, sample plot, matrix conclusion, image supplement, weight estimation.

  • Work memory subtests: number range, letter number sequence, counting.

  • Process Test Subtests: Encoding, Symbol Search, Deletion.

WISC-IV - Child Intelligence Test: The Wechsler Children’s Intelligence Test is a revised and modernized version of measuring instruments known as MAWGYI and HAWIK in Hungary. Developed in 2003, the adaptation in Hungary has been used since 2008. The WISC-IV indexes and subtests are identical to the adult version. With the help of the index-based profile, we can gain a useful point about the cognitive abilities of young 6-17 year olds.

Test d2-Revision - Attention and focus test: d2 is a paper-pencil test designed to measure selective attention and monotony tolerance. An observational process that reveals the speed of information processing, compliance with rules, and quality aspects of performance, which allows you to estimate the degree of concentration. Its advantage is that it measures pure attention performance without confusing it with other special abilities (eg counting), and it can also be used for young athletes as the test can be used from 9 years of age. The attention control functions are expressed in 3 components: the amount of the substance delivered in the given time; quality of work (fault number); and the time pattern of performance (eg the effect of fatigue). In Hungary, the Pieron test was first used to examine athletes’ attention. The test measures the individual’s performance to the error rate. It doesn’t have standards, so we don’t know what’s low, average, and high performance, and it’s a serious drawback that 100% performance is achieved with relatively slow work. Here are some of the projective and personality tests that are used by professionals in the field of sports psychology. It is worth noting, however, that these types of tests (with one exception) are less frequently used by the discipline, as they are used more in the field of clinical psychology.

Projective tests

Frank (1939) named test tests for projective tests in which an unstructured stimulus group should report to the client. It is assumed that if we get into new situations, we will carry our habits and solutions that adhere to our personality, and in the new situation the old circumstances will lead our actions. This is even more so when this situation is unstructured. In this case, it is the projection of our own internal patterns (previously acquired) onto the unstructured material. The subjective arises as if it were objective, almost inevitably entangled with the characteristic features of our personality. Projective tests make their callers ambiguous by their unstructured nature. Performance tests look at isolated capabilities rather than targeting the entire personality of the projective test. Almost all aspects of a person’s relationship to reality can be revealed during projective testing. (Oláh, 2006, cited by Balogh, 2016). Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The TAT, which consists of 31 images, explores the dominant driving forces of the personality, the emotions, feelings, complexes and conflicts of the person being trained. In addition to the Rorschach test, the other most popular projective procedure is. The test helps in analyzing the unconscious fantasies of the test person, exploring latent needs by evaluating the stories of a series of personality images. TAT can be used for any comprehensive personality testing among adolescent and adult athletes.

Szondi-Test: The test is the measuring tool of Lipót Szondi’s instinct, the basic assumption of which is that our most important choices are guided by our latent stimuli. The test developed by Szondi, based on the individual’s projection tendencies, leads to a person’s perception of the testimonial, based on the sympathetic and antipathetic selection of photographs from different people. When performing the test, the 48 photographers are presented in a series of 6 photos, with 2 sympathetic and 2 obnoxious images. The test can be used from 4 years of age. Rosenzweig’s Able Frustration Test (PFT): The commonly used tool for individual determination of frustration tolerance is PFT. The person being examined shows 24 different images, each showing a frustrating situation. For each image, the athlete should choose the response options offered to him / her to respond to the person shown in the figure. The test examines whether the reaction of the individual is directed towards the environment, towards the environment or inward, towards itself. The answers can be grouped as follows:

  • Obstacle-sensitive, that is, it adheres to the problem

  • judgmental, that is, responsibility

  • solution-oriented

With the help of the test, it can be predicted what reaction can be expected from athletes in frustrating situations.

Drawing tests: When drawing a projective drawing, the drawer follows the instruction, draws it without guidance. The instruction only has a minimal effect on the drawing and gives little information to the subject. In clinical work, human, family, animal, tree or house representations are often used as diagnostic tools or as therapeutic aids. The drawings express the personality, personality and general status of the drawer. Two drawing test types are briefly presented below.

Sketch tests: Here are human-drawing tests (man, family, enchanted family, man in rain, etc.). The psychodiagnostic experience shows that the drawn figures are in line, in their proportions, in their position, in their clothing, in their workmanship, and so on. they exhibit characteristics closely related to the personality structure and dynamics of the drawer.

Tree Test: We analyze logs according to many formal and technical aspects. Examples include size, sketching, ordering, foliage-root-root ratio, the shape of the sector, injury to the strain, the presence of the skin, etc. The symbolic interpretation of the logs is based on specific spatial symbolic foundations. We can also gain information about the structure, attitude, grievances, time orientation of the personality (adhering to past experiences, meaningful, or future-oriented) when using the tree-type tests.

Advantages and disadvantages of projective drawing tests:

  • Does not require verbalism, so it helps people to retreat to retreating, bold people

  • Can be done in groups

  • It does not expire

  • Repeatable

  • The phenomenon is complex

  • Drawing symbols change individually.

  • There are several reasons for creating a certain drawing criterion (eg its size).

  • The same drawing phenomenon can be interpreted differently for different people.

  • The measurement of drawing variables is a problem because there are objectively and subjectively graspable features.

Lüscher Test: The method developed by a Swiss psychologist at Lüscher serves to map the psychophysiological state of personality. It is based on the assumption that colors have an effect on humans, so some behavioral trends can be inferred from color preferences and color renditions. The test is designed to reveal features such as resistance to stress, performance or communication, but it can also be used to identify psychological stressors that trigger physical symptoms. Color choices are mostly driven by unconscious processes, so we can gain insight into the deeper layers of personality, not the conscious sphere that the paper-pencil tests mimic. The test is taken approx. It takes 5-10 minutes to use in adolescence and adulthood.

Wartegg Test: The Wartegg test is a free drawing projective process that is located between the schematic and thematic methods, aimed at getting to know the whole personality structure. The Wartegg test is not used as such, but as part of a complete personality test. There are eight square squares of 4 cm on the test sheet, each with a drawing start (eg dot, square). The drawing designs collected by Wartegg are related elements that serve as part of a signal system. The figures have a call-to-action nature that focuses on an area of life. We use both formal and statistical evaluation when using it. The latter helps to see the high or low value of a character. In addition to the meaning of the drawings, there are a number of evaluation criteria (eg: test time, order of drawing, factors of expression, etc.).

Metamorphosis Test: The metamorphosis test provides positive and negative identification information about the internal world and self-image of test subjects. Positive identities show what a person wants to become, and negative identities are the qualities that you want to hide from the outside world. The test may seem playful for the first time, but it can be applied to children, adolescents and adults alike. The test offers categories, eg. animal. Positive choices are “what if…” and the negative choices are “we wouldn’t be….

Personality Tests

BIG5 Questionnaire: The test was carried out by Caprara, Barbaranelli and Borgogni, (1993, 1999, cited by Balogh, 2016), by Rózsa (2004, cited by Balogh, 2016). BIG5 is a comprehensive self-characterizing questionnaire designed to measure personality. The 132-item measuring instrument measures the person’s basic emotional, interpersonal and motivational characteristics. It can be used from the age of 15, filling the questionnaire takes 20-40 minutes. Dimensions are as follows:

  • Energy

  • Friendliness,

  • Conscientiousness,

  • Emotional stability

  • Openness

Each scale decomposes into two further sub-scales, allowing for a finer classification within the main dimension.

EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire): The test characterizes the subject in four different dimensions: psychoticism, extroversion, neuroticism, or emotional lability and conformism. Psychoticism is designed to examine individuals’ tendency to aggression, empathy, impulsiveness, creativity, and conventionalism. The dimension of extroversion can show its openness, interest, or lack of it to the outside world. The factor of neuroticism is the tendency of the subjects to have neurosis (an anxiety-related mental problem). Conformism can express the ability to adapt to particular social conditions or the inability to adapt. The test itself contains 90 questions to be decided, which should be given a yes / no response to the test subjects after a short period of reflection.

STAI Spielberger Status - Feature Anxiety Questionnaire: STAI is a 40-item questionnaire designed to measure the strength of anxiety. We separate the scales for the assessment of momentary anxiety and anxiety as a personality trait. So the test helps to distinguish the temporary anxiety state from the general tendency to anxiety. The state anxiety scale points to transient tensions, anxieties, and anxiety that can be triggered mainly by physical danger and psychological stress. The Trait Anxiety Scale serves to reveal and filter out anxiety disorders. It is worth noting that although the two dimensions above are theoretically separated, the increased degree of traumatic anxiety tends to cause state anxiety. The test can be used in adolescents and athletes.

Other pencil tests for athletes

CSAI-2 Test: The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (2) is linked to Martens et al. This was the first sport-specific test procedure (Lavallee, 2004, cited by Balogh, 2016). The questionnaire contains 27 statements, standardized by Kornél Sípos in 1994 in Hungarian. The test examines athletes’ pre-competition anxiety patterns as well as their level of confidence. It contains twenty seven items, arranged in 3 scales, with 9 statements for each scale:

  • Cognitive anxiety

  • Somatic anxiety

  • Confidence

The advantage of the test is that it can easily and quickly take on a practical life situation and can be used safely with young athletes.

ACSI-28 Test: A modified version of the questionnaire developed by the Smith and co-workers (1995, cited by Balogh, 2016). The first version consisted of 87 items, which were later reduced to 28 by researchers. These statements express the athlete’s personal experience. Twenty-eight items are sorted into seven scales, each with 4 statements:

  • Tackling with traps

  • Performance in the top position

  • Objective / mental preparation

  • Concentration from worry

  • Self-confidence and performance motivation

  • Coach control

The ACSI-28 can be quickly and easily captured, evaluated and more accurate on the basis of its results we can get the athlete’s problems.

Sports Motivational Questionnaire (SMS): The test was originally written by Pelletier et al. (1995, cited by Balogh, 2016). The sports motivational questionnaire is designed to determine the type of athlete’s motivation, ie, its motivation, actions, or internal driving forces. The test also examines the phenomenon of amotivation.

The perceived motivational environment in sport, PMCSQ -2: The original questionnaire was developed by Newton and Duda (2000), Hungarian adaptation was done by Révész et al. (2009, cited by Balogh, 2016). The questionnaire examines the task and the self-centered attitude of team athletes. The questionnaire can be used to identify the motivational environment and become an additional element of the selection and talent management system. The two main scales of the test have 3 to 3 sub-scales:

TASK, “task-centered” Cooperative learning Role within the team Efforts to develop

EGO, “self-centered” Fear of misrepresentation and punishment Len Uneven recognition Team rivalry

Instruments for instrumental testing

Instrumental tests are used to assess the condition, sensing and perception among athletes. In the following, four groups of instrumental examinations are reviewed with Examples 1-1.

Workplace Testing, Workplace Testing Instruments: This group includes tests that cover the duration of work, skill testing, failing skills, and coordination skills. Examples:

  • Moede Plaque: Hand Craftsmanship and Work Mode Testing Tool.

  • Crawford Workout: Hand Craftsmanship Testing, Distributed Attention Testing

  • Construction roller and construction disk: examines manual ability, work speed and coordination skills.

  • Riccossay, Fingerprint Investigator: We examine the ability to manipulate the fingers and the ability to defeat it.

Instruments for Motorcycle and Sensomotor Functions: Detection and perception, attention, concentration, manipulation skills, and monotony tolerance tests are included in this group. Complex sensory motor tester and conflict meter: The instrument is suitable for measuring the various types of reaction time (simple, selective and selective or complex) that are most commonly used to test sensory motor functions. At the same time, it meets new analytical aspects, such as the possibility of training and the demand level as an important working mode ticket.

Hand Coordinator: The device can be used to examine eye-hand coordination, concentration, attention, monotony tolerance and manual dexterity. Combined Distributor Attention: The device can be used to analyze the effects of shared attention, two-hand coordination, and the impact of monotonous task situations. Suitable for one-handed and two-handed testing. ”(Balogh, 2016)

3.2. VTS (Vienna Test System Test for Sport Psychology)

“This section describes the tests used in computerized testing procedures and their framework program, the Vienna Test System (VTS). In addition to a detailed description of each test, we also give the main attributes of the test: what competencies are being examined, what forms are there, how much time is required to complete it. At the end of the study, there is an overview table that sets leadership competencies and VTS tests in parallel.

The Vienna Test System is a computer-based psychological measurement test system developed by Austrian Schuchfried GmbH, which can measure the athletes’ cognitive abilities and personality traits. Computer methods have been used for a long time by psychological measuring devices, providing unique benefits to their users (eg, millisecond measurement capability). Standardized test sampling completely excludes subjective factors dependent on the test leader, which is an additional advantage over paper-pencil tests. Test results can be instantly, accurately and easily reviewed and transmitted to various statistical processes, such as displaying measurement data in an Excel spreadsheet. The test results of the athletes are stored in the database, so they can be compared immediately with the results of further tests. Vienna’s innovativeness and resilience worldwide meet stringent quality standards. The test system is easy to use, customizable for testing, ie sport-specific, which is very useful for a particular athlete / coach or team. You can measure many competencies in a targeted way, whether it is problem solving, result orientation, or goal (eg performance motivation, self-confidence). We can measure decision-making skills (decision-making, decision-making style, competence), the level of assertiveness, cooperation skills (conflict management, teamwork, empathy, problem focus, etc.). Stress tolerance (frustration tolerance, stability in stress), adherence to rules and simultaneous attention capacity can also be realized.

From a sport psychological point of view, measurable factors can be divided into three groups: Cognitive factors include: stress, attention, memory, reaction time, anticipation skills that can be improved from one to the next.

Personality traits: These qualities determine the athlete’s behavior in fierce situations, or eg. his place in the team. It is possible to measure the impulsiveness, motivation, and the ability to enforce interest of a given person. By identifying these, the athlete can be prepared to deal with fierce situations.

Physiological factors: Pulse rate, respiratory rate, skin resistance, etc. Measuring at the same time, the athlete’s physical reactions during a situation can be clarified, which provides a point of reference in the preparation of a sports psychologist. Why use the Vienna Test System:

Strengths and areas to be developed can be identified from a sport psychological point of view.

  • Provide guidance on the fitness of a particular athlete
  • Provides a tool for coaches to prepare / modify their training and training plans.
  • Provides a general overview of the athlete’s skills and personality
  • Helps a new player in the field of integration into the environment
  • Provides immediate results
  • A significant part of cognitive measuring tasks are suitable for the development of the given factor.

Below are some tests that can be classified as a tool for sport psychological studies. The Vienna Test System (VTS) is a computerized test system program that can be used to present a number of tests. The program also allows us to develop and use our own tests. With VTS, you can compile, save, store, and run complete test packages. Thus, test administration is done automatically, in a standard way. You can also include rest periods in each test. During the entire examination, there is a test leader who prepares the tools for the examination, receives the test person, tells the information and instructions. Starts the test package on your computer, responds to questions asked by the test person, or even interrupt the test administration if needed (for example, due to a question or a sudden problem). After the interruption, you can restart the tests (Hőgye-Nagy and Kurucz, 2014).

Two- Hand Coordination test (2HAND): The test examines sensomotor coordination and the coordination of the two hands. The ball shown in the figure must be sent from point A to point B during the test so that it cannot touch the walls. depending on the test form, athletes can do this with a joystick or control arm (handwheel). Not tied to age. Test Time: 8-15 minutes

Decision making Test (DM): The test measures reactive stress tolerance, reaction time, and potential attention deficit through continuous and rapidly changing visual and acoustic stimuli. A complex test method in which a person finds himself in a color and tone, reacting with different buttons and pedals. The form of the response itself and the test task are simple, which makes it difficult, the speed of the change of stimuli. The test person will necessarily be overwhelmed, creating a stress situation. There are 6 forms of the test, approx. It can be completed in 6-15 minutes, depending on the test form.

Parallel Attention Test: Parallel Attention Test measures simultaneous capacity and stress tolerance. Simultaneous capacity means that the person is simultaneously dealing with routine and cognitive (problem solving) tasks (multiple activities). Stress tolerance refers to how performance in routine tasks changes in a normal and stressful environment. There is a test form, which is approx. It can be completed in 40 minutes.

COG test: Test for attention function and concentration. During the test, the subject should compare different figures. COG approaches its concentration capability through 3 variables. The “energy” variable is the concentration required to perform the task, the “function” variable does not show the same level of concentration required to complete the task, or the “precision” variable is the quality of performance. In the unlimited forms of the test, we examine the energy variable while in the time-limited tests the function and the precision. Test Time: 5-20 minutes

LVT test: The test measures visual performance, visibility, and visual selective attention in a complex environment. The athlete should work in a time-consuming manner, focusing on distracting factors. The result predicts how accurately the athlete can isolate the relevant stimuli from irrelevant in a complex environment with distracting visual stimuli, as well as gain information about the change in performance. This is a very useful test for athletes playing ball games. Test Time: 5-25 minutes.

Figure 2. LVT test sample table (Biehl, 2014)

MDT: The test examines attention performance and the speed of motor (reaction time) and cognitive (decision time) reactions. The test also records early and late reactions. The test is to react to the movement of a centrally located point. It is first and foremost recommended for motor and car sports, as it is very important to have a precise and fast response. There are 3 forms of test based on the difficulty level. Test time: average of 8 minutes for all three types MLS: The test examines the movements of the fingers, hands and arms with static and dynamic tasks. It can be used to measure targeting skill (accuracy of movement), hand tremor, precision of hand movements, skill of hand and fingers, ratio of hand and arm movements, speed of wrists and fingers. The test can be performed over three years of age in three forms. types can be separated based on the number of subtests. Test Time: 15-20 minutes (for short form)

PP (Peripheral Detection Test): PP test examines athletes’ peripheral detection capabilities. The athlete watches the center of the visual field during the task solutions, but at the same time it has to react to a certain type of light bulbs appearing on the periphery. The result obtained shows the width of the right and left visual perception fields of the competitor in degrees. The false alarms, the number of omissions and the reaction time are also evaluated. Test time: 25 minutes

SIGNAL (Focused Attention Test): A test developed to test long-term selective attention. There are dots on the entire screen that disappear randomly and appear in different places. The athlete must recognize and react as quickly as possible when there is a square of 4 points on the screen. That is, it must distinguish relevant signals from irrelevant stimuli. The test evaluates the registration of complex visual stimuli over time over a longer period of time. It can be used from the age of 7 years. Fill time: 14-25 minutes

Figure 3. SIGNAL test sample table (Schuhfried, 2007)

SIMKAP (Simultaneous Capacity): SIMKAP examines simultaneous attention capacity and reactive stress tolerance. Simultaneously, it monitors the athlete’s performance in a situation where he performs tasks that require routine and problem solving at the same time. Stress tolerance monitors performance differences while performing routine tasks (between baseline and increased challenges). The test has a shorter and a longer form. Test Time: 15-40 minutes (depending on test form)

SMK (Eye-Hand Coordination Test): The test examines eye-hand, two-hand, or eye-to-hand coordination by maneuvering a section that moves by itself in a 3-dimensional room. The time required for the coordination of the individual is determined by the information and feedback received. The results show the ability to track changes at the level of movement, and the ability to manually monitor the changes perceived by the eye. Test Time: 15 minutes

ZBA (Anticipation, Motion-Time Estimation Test): The test is used to measure motion direction, motion time, and the ability to predict motion. In the test, we can see a green ball roll on the screen, always moving in a different direction and direction. It disappears sometime and goes on invisible. Two lines will then appear and the respondent will have to react if he / she thinks the ball has reached the second line, while the task is to mark the point where the ball will cross the finish line. Test Time: 15-25 minutes

Figure 4. ZBA test sample table (Bauer et al., 1999)

RISIKO (Risk-taking Test): The main variable in the test is risk-taking and efficiency. The task of the athlete is to get as many points as possible by keeping an irregularly moving ball around. The task has to be done in four different circumstances, each part consists of three threads. The radius of the circle can be set by the person performing the test. The scores received will be returned after each run, which the athlete may take into account when re-setting. The circumstances differ in the difficulty of coordination and the speed of the ball to be followed. The test can be used at any age. Test Time: Approximately 20 minutes

Resilance Test (BACO): Objective personality test to examine different aspects of resilience. The test measures the following aspects:

  • time pressure
  • presence of others
  • conflict of tasks
  • unexpected situations
  • inadequate feedback
  • inadequate working conditions ” (Balogh, 2016)

Everyday Attention Test - Test of Everyday Attention - TEA

“TEA examines executive aspects in acoustic and visual modalities along four factors: work memory capacity; attention selection; shift attention; reserved attention. The test employs and displays everyday stimuli, signs, and tasks that are common in everyday life, which make the task situation realistic, make it easier for people to accept the test situation, take on the task perspective, and develop the required task engagement. By doing so, they allow a more realistic estimation of attention function. Thanks to the unified context, TEA captures some aspects of attention function simultaneously with a single set of tasks. The eight test results of the test are related to the typical life situations of an imaginary journey.

Map Search: For a person, I need to find a large coloured map of 80 well-known symbols (restaurant, service marking) in two minutes. Floor Counting: The person must determine the floor of the elevator on the basis of the sound signals of a broken elevator. Floor counting with disturbing stimuli: the person must determine the floor of the elevator on the basis of sound signals and distracting sounds of a broken elevator. Visual Floor Counting: The person must determine the position of an elevator based on visual level and direction indicators Hearing floor counting: for a person with up or down. You need to determine the position of a downward elevator based on acoustic level signals. Phonebook Search: You need to circulate specific characters in a phonebook within a given time. Phonebook Search in Dual Job Situation: You need to circulate a specific bookmark of a phonebook within a given time, counting the beeps. Lottery Quote: Describe a character (winning numbers on the lottery) for each ten-minute series.

3.3. Video analysis techniques

“Video-based systems can be used with independent cameras, but it is important that cameras connect directly to the computer. For independent cameras, it is important to have a unique starting point at the start of the analysis, because in the absence of it, the shots may shift in time. For individual startup, it is almost unlikely to be synchronized. This problem is exacerbated by taking fewer images per second because in this case there is a much greater chance of a possible time difference for two or more cameras. The creation of the start signal and the time offset can be avoided if the cameras are operated by a motion analysis software.

Marker-free video analysis: Marker-free video analyzes are also called offline systems, as identification points for identification are retrieved afterwards. The great advantage of this system is that it can be used in situations where it is not possible to record markers, for example at the Olympic Games or other world events. Identification can be done manually or automatically. In the case of the former, the marking of points is done with the help of a mouse, by manual digitization, which is an extremely monotonous, time and human resource intensive process. Despite the difficulties, motion analysis without a marker is a very important process, since data from real life, which is unrepeatable in laboratory conditions, can only be tested by this method (eg London Olympics: Usain Bolt 100m final, 2012). Motion tracking without automatic marker is based on recognizing the outlines of the body.

Marker Video Analysis: When using this type, the most important points of motion for the object to be tested should be marked with markers, the analyst will track the position of these markers. The markers are designed to maximize the contrast between the surrounding pixels. Basically, we distinguish between active and passive markers. Active markers operate with some kind of light or sound, while passive markers do not send signals. When using passive markers, there is no need to connect between the moving object and the analyzer, and markers with light, special retroreflective material, or colours that are significantly different from their surroundings (white-black) must be attached to strategically important points. The advantage of this solution is that insertion and wearing do not cause discomfort, so movement analysis does not affect the movement itself. The disadvantage of passive markers is that markers must be identified based on the images taken from them, which are later used as software references. In the pictures taken by the cameras, the markers can be separated from their surroundings by their brightness. From the point of view of the motion analyzer, markers can be considered as carriers of information, knowing the coordinates of their center means the knowledge of the position of the marked points. When examining movements, it is difficult to trace the trajectories of individual markers when overlapping or obscuring is seen from one of the cameras. Such unclear situations can be resolved from the image (s) seen by other cameras. For successful motion analysis, strategically important points must first be selected. These are: ankle, knee, hip, shoulder, elbow wrist and head. Such systems are also of great importance for leisure and sports athletes. For example, for a racing athlete (eg runner), when decades or tenths are decided between placements, motion analysis can help you achieve better results. With the help of the system, minimal differences can be noticed, which are not visible to the eye. For example, after running a marker and walking test, after marking markers with four high-resolution cameras, taking the test person from multiple angles, the analysis will answer questions such as what a healthy running style is for me, how I run, what I need to improve, how I can improve the effectiveness of my run. The test is not only available to athletes, but also to the general public.

Infrared Systems: Using infrared systems requires special cameras that can capture infrared or near infrared reflectors. These systems can be used under controlled (laboratory) conditions, avoiding reflective materials or sunlight. The synchronization of the camera and other devices (eg accelerometer), data collection and camera properties (frequency, shutter speed) are fully computer-controlled, so no post-process (data point synchronization) is required. To increase the ambient light pressure, the markers are illuminated by infrared light stroboscopically. The ambient light pressure is further increased by the infrared-pass filter placed on the camera lens.

Ultrasonic Systems: For ultrasonic systems, the markers emit ultrasound, which is recorded by several microphones. When a marker emits ultrasound, the microphones detect the sound at different time intervals, depending on how far away they are from the marker. Using three microphones, the exact position of the markers (three-dimensional coordinates) can be defined. In general, such systems operate at low frequencies (50 Hz / marker). This frequency value can be further reduced if the number of markers is increased, but care must be taken to avoid the simultaneous sending of markers. It is also important that there is no obstacle to the spread of sound. The system is capable of analyzing movements in a fixed location, such as walking on a treadmill, due to the small range of the system.

Inertial Measuring Instruments: The combination of gyros, accelerometers and, in some cases, magnetometers puts a new approach to motion analysis. The accelerometer sensor is used in a number of places, such as smartphones and tablets, where the devices can detect the various movements to which automatic tasks can be paired (Dabnichki and Baca, 2014). The most common way to use the screen is to rotate the screen orientation in sync between landscape and portrait display. In fact, the accelerometer does not show physical acceleration, but provides information about the spatial motion of the device. The determining value of the accelerometer position can be represented in a three-dimensional vector. The X, Y, Z coordinates of the three-dimensional vector can take values from -1 to +1. The three coordinate values (x, y, z) indicate, for example, how much the device is tilted relative to the default spatial coordinate system. The gyroscope is very similar to the accelerometer used in the previous section. While the accelerometer tells you what the x, y, z position of your phone is, for example, the gyroscope tells you how quickly this position is reached. So, in motion, the gyroscope in the X, Y, Z spatial coordinate system tells you how much the displacement velocity relative to the X, Y, Z axis. With camera systems, we are able to analyze complex human movements. The more cameras we work with, the more accurately we can follow in motion, even in team games. ” (Balogh, 2016)

3.4. DPTR (Debrecen Psychological Test System) sport-specific psychological instruments developed by the Psychological Institute of Debrecen

The primary target group of the Debrecen Psychological Test System (DPTR) is sports psychology and sports psychodiagnostic and counselling professionals. But in addition, coaches, club leaders and athletes themselves can extend their knowledge of the test system by applying appropriate knowledge in their daily work.

Measurements and research in the field of sports psychology have shown increasing interest in reliable and psychodiagnostic tools for predicting athlete fitness in recent years. Thus, there is a growing need for objective, high-performance athletic diagnostic procedures and practitioners who successfully apply these procedures to facilitate the performance of sports organizations, including athletes, coaches, and club leaders in the field of athletic and recreational sports. Developing and familiarizing sports psychodiagnostic practitioners with the requirements of today’s age that are applicable to athlete’s career planning, modern psychological selection and performance, and performance assessment systems are essential to athletic development. This is answered by the DPTR test system developed by the research group of the Institute of Psychology, University of Debrecen, which enables sports psychologists to apply and integrate objective, measurable, effective and long-term procedures in sports psychodiagnosis and development.

The tests currently available in the DPTR system for 5 sports (football, table tennis, water polo, handball and fencing) were developed based on the psychological characteristics of sports. The DPTR test system measures the performance of test tasks across multiple dimensions in a single task. The value of a test measurement can be binary (e.g. success / failure, found / not found) or continuous (e.g. time used, number of errors, shot accuracy). When evaluating tests, we first summarize these performance variables, such as athlete’s success rate or percentage of hits, and average time, average error, and average accuracy during tests. These metrics can then be used to plot the performance profile of each athlete.

However, compared to traditional test systems, the DPTR test system is not satisfied with such summary statistics. In fact, testing not only records athlete performance data, but also details of circumstances that we may purposefully change during testing and that may affect athlete performance. Such circumstance may be the direction, speed, or even the magnitude of a moving stimulus (such as a ball, racket). This additional test information gives you the opportunity to see if performance is dependent on the test conditions we are specifically changing. Also, such a typical question may be whether the athlete’s performance, and thus the chance of hitting a ball, depends on the direction or speed at which the ball arrives and, if so, in what manner and extent? This allows us to draw a more nuanced and accurate performance profile of athletes using the test system.

Furthermore, among the changing circumstances that characterize the test system, it is worth mentioning the time, which is constantly changing during testing. The dependence of athlete’s performance on test time is also individually investigated, interpreted, and evaluated by the DPTR test system. Evaluating the time factor can reveal how much athlete performance is, whether there is an increase, decrease, or fluctuation in test completion, which can be matched with real athlete performance after proper validation procedures.

CHECKING ISSUES

  1. Which are the main sport psychological tests?
  2. How can you describe the Lüscher test?
  3. What is the ACSI-28 test for in sport psychology?
  4. How can you describe the VTS (Vienna Test System)?
  5. Could you give an example for resilience test?
  6. What kind of video analysis techniques could you mention?